Abstract
This study aims to examine the deluge of nineteenth-century Sunday School literature with a particular focus on its theological content, the religious background of its authors, and to identify and critically analyse three specifically dominant theological themes apparent in the literature that have previously been neglected. The themes, although rarely acknowledged, are prevalent and correlate with the principal Christian doctrinal debates of the period. I argue that the scale, content, idiosyncratic context, and wide-ranging influence of its theological dimensions render ‘Evangelical children’s literature’ a distinctive literary genre.
Apart from the praiseworthy efforts of John Newbery in the eighteenth century, little attempt was made to provide children with reading matter designed especially for them until Maria Edgeworth, Mrs Sherwood, and the Sunday School tract writers sharpened their pens in the nineteenth century. Then came the deluge; but that story requires a volume to itself. (Altick, Richard. D. The English Common Reader: A Social History of the Mass Reading Public, 1880–1900 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1957). p. 9.)
—Richard Altick
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Notes
- 1.
For scholarship on the complex debates surrounding the term ‘genre’ see Chandler, Daniel. An Introduction to Genre Theory. PDF—https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242253420_An_Introduction_to_Genre_Theory, accessed 08.05.22. Duff, David. (Ed) Modern Genre Theory (Harlow: Longman 2000). Kress, Gunther. Communication and Culture: An Introduction (Kensington, NSW: New South Wales University Press, 1988) p. 107. Some scholars argue that classification methods used to categorise literary works could mislead, restrict, and undermine the text by judging it according to labels that do not accurately fit the work. Such marketing strategies may not only influence the sales of publications but also the writing process and content.
- 2.
Altick (1957. p. 101).
- 3.
See the section below on the historicization of children’s literature for a review of critical analyses by a range of scholars of children’s literature of this period, who refer only in the main to the moral and didactic nature of the material, whereas this study focuses uniquely on its specifically religious and theological content and style.
- 4.
See Darton, F. J. Harvey (1966) Chapter 6.
- 5.
For a discussion of more populist historical uses of the term ‘theology’, see Morgan, Sue. A Passion for Purity: Ellice Hopkins and the politics of gender in the late-Victorian Church (Bristol: University of Bristol Press, 1999). p. 155.
- 6.
For a list of works on Childhood, Theology, and Spirituality, see note 13. See also the Epilogue where I expand on Child Theology as a developing field, and Rahner, Karl. ‘Ideas for a Theology of Childhood’, in Theological Investigations Volume VIII: Further Theology of the Spiritual Life 2 Trans: David John Bourke. (London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1971). Blair K (2016) Children’s literature and theology in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Journal of Literature and Theology, 30 (2), pp. 125–130. P. Hunt, ‘The Loss of the Father and of God in English-Language Children’s Literature (1800–2000)’ in J. De Maeyer et al. (eds.) Religion, Children’s Literature and Modernity in Western Europe 1750–2000 (Leuven: Leuven University Press, 2005), pp. 295–303, p. 295.
- 7.
Smale, Irene Euphemia. Robert Raikes and the Origins of the Sunday School Movement: A Case Study in Late Eighteenth Century Philanthropism, submitted as a BA Dissertation, University of Chichester, 2004. The Child in the Midst: Theological Themes and Ideas in Nineteenth Century Evangelical Children’s Literature 1780–1900, submitted as a thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Southampton 2015.
- 8.
For the origins of the SS Movement see Laqueur, T.W. Religion and Respectability: Sunday Schools and Working-Class Culture 1780–1850 (New Haven London: Yale University Press, 1976). Cliff, P. B. The Rise and Development of the Sunday School Movement in England 1780–1900 (Redhill: National Christian Education Council, 1986).
- 9.
See Altick, p. 100.
- 10.
Avery, Gillian. Childhood’s Pattern: A Study of the Heroes and Heroines of Children’s Fiction 1770–1950 (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1975). Avery, Gillian. Nineteenth Century Children (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1965). Darton, Harvey. Children’s Books in England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982). Hunt, Peter. Children’s Literature an Illustrated History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
- 11.
Secondary source literature has been drawn from the work of English literature scholars cited in the historiography section.
- 12.
Many of these texts continue to be popular and are currently available both in digital and reprinted versions.
- 13.
See—Bakke, O. M. When Children Became People: The Birth of Childhood in Early Christianity, Trans. Brian McNeil (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 2005); Berryman, Jerome W. Children and the Theologians: Clearing the Way for Grace (New York: Morehouse Publishing, 2010); Bunge, Marcia J. (Ed.) The Child in Christian Thought and Practice (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2001); Bunge, Marcia J.; Fretheim, Terence E.; and Gaventa, Beverly Roberts (Eds.) The Child in the Bible (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2008); Jensen, David H. Graced Vulnerability: A Theology of Childhood (Cleveland: Pilgrim Press, 2005); Lawson, Kevin (Ed.) Understanding Children’s Spirituality: Theology, Research, and Practice (Eugene: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2012); Mercer, Joyce Ann. Welcoming Children: A Practical Theology of Childhood, annotated ed. (St. Louis: Chalice Press, 2007); Miller-McLemore, Bonnie J. Let The Children Come: Reimagining Childhood from a Christian Perspective, 1st ed. (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2003); Phillips, Anne. The Faith of Girls (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011); Shier-Jones, Angela. (Ed) Children of God: Towards a Theology of Childhood (Peterborough: Epworth Press, 2007).
- 14.
See Cunningham, Hugh. The Invention of Childhood (London: BBC Books, BBC Worldwide Ltd., 2006).
- 15.
For separate spheres ideology see: Cordea, Diana. Two Approaches on The Philosophy Of Separate Spheres In Mid-Victorian England: John Ruskin and John Stuart Mill (Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences 71 (2013) pp. 115–122.
- 16.
See Bratton, Josephine. The Impact of Victorian Children’s Fiction (London: Croom Helm Ltd, 1981). p. 102.
- 17.
Grenby, Matthew Orville. The Child Reader 1700–1840 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
- 18.
Williams, Abigail. The Social Life of Books: Reading Together in the Eighteenth-Century Home (Yale: University Press, 2017) p. 105.
- 19.
See Chap. 5 of this study on Bishop Samuel Wilberforce.
- 20.
Grenby (2011. p. 11).
- 21.
For a discussion on the various methods employed see Chap. 4 of this study.
- 22.
According to F. J. H. Darton, its only shortcoming was that it inevitably omitted works during the period when children’s literature in the modern sense really ‘grew up’. See Darton, F. J. H. Children’s Books in England: Five Centuries of Social Life, 3rd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1932). p. v.
- 23.
Field, E. M. The Child and His Book: Some Account of the History and Progress of Children’s Literature in England (London: Wells Gardner, Darton & Co., 1892).
- 24.
Field. p. 13.
- 25.
Watts, Isaac. Divine Songs, attempted in easy language for children. By I. Watts, D.D. To which are added poems, instructive and entertaining (Burslem: John Tregortha, 1715). See the CTS Hockliffe Project:
http://hockliffe.dmu.ac.uk/items/0462.html, accessed 15.08.22. The British Library catalogue lists over one hundred different editions published during the nineteenth century, including translations into Welsh, Manx, Yoruba, and a phonetic language. It was more popular in the nineteenth century, and many more new editions published in the eighty-five years post 1800 than in the similar period before.
- 26.
Field. p. 4.
- 27.
Altick (1957. p. 388).
- 28.
See—Constable, Rosalind. Department of Amplification, The New Yorker, 4 March 1950.
- 29.
Including A Life of Our Saviour (n.d.); The Star of Promise or From Bethlehem to Calvary (1873); Papa’s Stories for Younger Children (1850); The Children of Scripture (1856 & 1864); The Story of Stories or Bible Narratives for the Very Young (1875).
- 30.
Son of an Irish Protestant clergyman with strong Calvinist leanings and related to a family of numerous authors. J. T. Sheridan le Fanu wrote Gothic tales, mystery novels, and horror fiction.
- 31.
Drabble, Margaret. The Pattern in the Carpet: A Personal History with Jigsaws (Edinburgh: Grove Atlantic Ltd., 2009). p. 237.
- 32.
Drabble. p. 236.
- 33.
Darton (1932, p. 1).
- 34.
The high esteem for Darton’s work continues in the prestigious award given in his honour by the Children’s Books History Society.
- 35.
Darton. p. 158.
- 36.
Ibid., p. 179.
- 37.
Ibid., p. 180.
- 38.
Ibid., p. 180.
- 39.
Sherwood, Mary Martha. and Sherwood, Henry. The Life and Times of Mrs Sherwood (1775–1851): From the Diaries of Captain and Mrs Sherwood (London: Wells, Gardner, Darton & Co. Ltd., 1910).
- 40.
Muir, Percy H. English Children’s Books: 1600–1900 (London: B. T. Batsford, 1954).
- 41.
Muir, p. 87.
- 42.
Ibid., p. 87.
- 43.
Ibid., p. 83.
- 44.
Avery (1965).
- 45.
Avery, p. 41.
- 46.
Avery (1965, p. 41).
- 47.
Avery (1975, p. 120). The Sunday Fairy was a comic published by the Amalgamated Press (AP). It was launched on 10 May 1919, renamed The Children’s Sunday Fairy on 11 October 1919, then The Children’s Fairy on 1 November 1919. On 16 April 1921 it was re-launched as Bubbles and the Children’s Fairy. The AP was a comic, magazine and newspaper publishing company founded in 1901 by Alfred Harmsworth and became the largest newspaper company in the UK under the banner of IPC magazines and Fleetway publications.
- 48.
Avery (1975, p. 9).
- 49.
Avery (1965, p. 25).
- 50.
Avery (1975, p. 66).
- 51.
Ibid., p. 70.
- 52.
Ibid., p. 74.
- 53.
Cutt, Margaret Nancy. Ministering Angels: A Study of Nineteenth-century Evangelical Writing for Children (Broxbourne: Five Owls Press Ltd., 1979).
- 54.
Ibid., p. 1.
- 55.
Ibid., p. 2.
- 56.
The word ‘evangel’ is used throughout this study to describe an evangelist or messenger of the Gospel message of the Christian faith and its affinity with Evangelicalism.
- 57.
As a missionary to India most of Tucker’s work was published for Indian children.
- 58.
Charlesworth, Maria Louisa. Ministering Children: A Tale Dedicated to Childhood (London: Ward, Lock & Co., 1854).
- 59.
Stretton, Hesba. Jessica’s First Prayer (London: Religious Tract Society, 1860).
- 60.
Cutt (1979, p. 101).
- 61.
For the effects of tract literature see, Cutt. 1979, Chapter VII Poverty in Tract Literature.
- 62.
See Cutt, 1979, Chapter VII on Poverty in Tract Literature and Walton, Mrs A. C. A Peep Behind the Scenes (London: The Religious Tract Society, 1877).
- 63.
Dickens, Marie. (ed.) The Life of Our Lord: Written Expressly for His Children by Charles Dickens (London: Associated Newspapers Ltd. 1934).
- 64.
Bratton, Josephine. The Impact of Victorian Children’s Fiction (London: Barnes & Noble, 1981). p. 81
- 65.
Ibid., p. 18. Also, Doreen Rosman addresses this point in Evangelicals and Culture (London: Croom, Helm Ltd., 1984).
- 66.
According to Altick, for example, in 1841 the percentage of literate males in England and Wales was 67.3 and females was 51.1, but by 1900 had risen to 97.2 per cent and 96.8 per cent, respectively. See Altick, p. 171.
- 67.
Bratton, p. 18.
- 68.
See Altick, Appendix B: Best Sellers.
- 69.
Altick, p. 100.
- 70.
Altick, pp. 388–389.
- 71.
Demers, Patricia. Heaven Upon Earth: The Form of Moral and Religious Children’s Literature to 1850 (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1993).
- 72.
Hunt, Peter. Children’s Literature an Illustrated History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
- 73.
See Charlesworth, Maria Louisa. Ministering Children: A Tale Dedicated to Childhood (London: Ward, Lock & Co., 1854). Circulated over 300,000 copies during her lifetime and was designed to teach children by example. It was especially popular as a ‘Reward Book’ for Sunday School prizes and was also translated into French, German, and Swedish.
- 74.
See, for example, Melnyk, Julie. Women’s Theology in Nineteenth-Century Britain: Transfiguring the Faith of Their Fathers (New York: Garland Press, 1998). And Styler, Rebecca. Literary Theology by Women Writers of the Nineteenth Century (Farnham: Ashgate, 2010). Hilton, Mary. Women and the Shaping of the Nation’s Young: Education and Public Doctrine in Britain 1750–1850 (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2007).
- 75.
There is now an extensive literature on Christian manliness or ‘Muscular Christianity’. See, for example, leading early texts in the field such as Newsome, David. Godliness and Good Learning (London: John Murray, 1961); Vance, Norman. The Sinews of the Spirit: The Ideal of Christian Manliness in Victorian Literature and Religious Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987) and Tosh, John. and Roper, Michael. (Eds) Manliness and Morality: Middle-class Masculinity in Britain and America, 1800–1940 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991).
- 76.
See Cliff, P. B., 1986.
- 77.
Gilmartin, Kevin. Writing against Revolution: Literary Conservatism in Britain, 1790–1832 (Cambridge University Press, 2007). Chapter 2 Hannah More and Counterrevolutionary Moral Reform. Kathryn Sutherland, ‘Hannah More’s Counter-Revolutionary Feminism’, in Revolution in Writing: British Literary Responses to the French Revolution, ed. Kelvin Everest (Milton Keynes: Open University Press, 1991).
- 78.
Ibid., p. 99.
- 79.
See Finnern, Sönke. Narration in Religious Discourse in The Living Handbook of Narratology, (Hamburg: Hamburg University Press, 2014).
- 80.
See Cliff, P. B. pp. 165–204. See also Laqueur, T.W. Religion and Respectability: Sunday Schools and Working-Class Culture 1780–1850 (New Haven London: Yale University Press, 1976).
- 81.
Demers, Patricia. Heaven Upon Earth: The Form of Moral and Religious Children’s Literature, to 1850 (University of Tennessee Press, 1993). p. 1.
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Smale, I.E. (2023). An Introduction to Evangelical Children’s Literature 1780–1900. In: Women, Theology and Evangelical Children’s Literature, 1780-1900. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19028-5_1
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