Abstract
Conventional chemotherapy using small molecules as antitumoral agents exhibited clinical limitations, related to serious side effects generated by the low selectivity toward tumor cells, since they also act on healthy tissues. Theranostics is a new field of nanomedicine, combining therapy, diagnosis, and real-time monitoring using imaging techniques. It is useful to monitor the biodistribution of the chemotherapeutic agent that can be activated in the target site to exert its action only in cancerous tissue. When theranostics and nanocarriers are associated, active tumor targeting can be more effectively obtained allowing in vivo tracking using imaging techniques for cancer treatment. The active molecule can be a photosensitizer physically associated or covalently conjugated with the nanocarrier, where the probe shows absorption in the near-infrared spectra. This activation generates free radicals, in photodynamic therapy, and/or heat, in the photothermal therapy, leading to cell death in the target tissue. Polymeric nanoparticles play a major role in this field because they are versatile and stable in biological fluids and they can be more easily conjugated with different types of organic or inorganic probes. The main focus of this chapter is on the polymeric nanoparticles that were developed and applied to act against cancer cells in vitro and in vivo using the nanotheranostic approaches. We expect that this chapter can give the first insights as to how a polymeric nanocarrier could be applied as a theranostic agent for tumor treatment, contributing to a more selective strategy to reduce the adverse effects. Promising in vivo results have been reported and discussed in the context of their biological applications.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Abbreviations
- AuNPs:
-
Gold nanoparticles
- AuNR:
-
Gold nanorod
- AuNS:
-
Gold nanospheres
- CNT:
-
Carbon nanotubes
- Doxo:
-
Doxorubicin
- EPR:
-
Enhanced permeability and retention effect
- ICG:
-
Indocyanine green
- MION:
-
Magnetic iron oxide nanocrystals
- MRI:
-
Magnetic resonance imaging
- NIR:
-
Near-infrared
- NIRF:
-
Near-infrared fluorescence
- NP:
-
Nanoparticle
- PAI:
-
Photoacoustic imaging
- PDT:
-
Photodynamic therapy
- PEG:
-
Polyethylene glycol
- PET:
-
Positron emission tomography
- PLA:
-
Poly(D,L-lactide)
- PLA-PEG:
-
Poly(D,L-lactide)-block-polyethylene glycol
- PLGA:
-
Poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide)
- PLGA-PEG:
-
Poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide)-block-polyethylene glycol (PLGA-PEG)
- PNP:
-
Polymeric nanoparticle
- PTT:
-
Photothermal therapy
- QDs:
-
Quantum dots
- ROS:
-
Reactive oxygen species
- SPECT:
-
Single photon emission computed tomography
- SPION:
-
Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles
- US:
-
Ultrasound
References
Adams, K. E., et al. (2007). Comparison of visible and near-infrared wavelength-excitable fluorescent dyes for molecular imaging of cancer. Journal of Biomedical Optics, 12(2), 024017. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.2717137
Ai, X., Mu, J., & Xing, B. (2016). Recent advances of light-mediated theranostics. Theranostics, 6(13), 2439–2457. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.16088
Aires-Fernandes, M., et al. (2022). Tissue engineering and photodynamic therapy: A new frontier of science for clinical application -an up-to-date review. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbioe.2022.837693
Alsaab, H. O., et al. (2020). Progress in clinical trials of photodynamic therapy for solid tumors and the role of nanomedicine. Cancers, 12(10), 2793. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers12102793
Alves, C. G., et al. (2018). IR780 based nanomaterials for cancer imaging and photothermal, photodynamic and combinatorial therapies. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 542(1–2), 164–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2018.03.020
Arias-Ramos, N., et al. (2021). Iron oxide incorporated conjugated polymer nanoparticles for simultaneous use in magnetic resonance and fluorescent imaging of brain tumors. Pharmaceutics, 13(8), 1258. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics13081258
Bagalkot, V., et al. (2007). Quantum dot−aptamer conjugates for synchronous cancer imaging, therapy, and sensing of drug delivery based on bi-fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Nano Letters, 7(10), 3065–3070. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl071546n
Banik, B. L., Fattahi, P., & Brown, J. L. (2016). Polymeric nanoparticles: The future of nanomedicine. WIREs Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology, 8(2), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1002/wnan.1364
Bazile, D., et al. (1995). Stealth Me. PEG-PLA nanoparticles avoid uptake by the mononuclear phagocytes system. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 84(4), 493–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.2600840420
Bazylińska, U., et al. (2014). Polymeric nanocapsules and nanospheres for encapsulation and long sustained release of hydrophobic cyanine-type photosensitizer. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 442, 42–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2013.02.023
Bertrand, N., et al. (2014). Cancer nanotechnology: The impact of passive and active targeting in the era of modern cancer biology. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 66, 2–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2013.11.009
Bhushan, A., Gonsalves, A., & Menon, J. U. (2021). Current state of breast cancer diagnosis, treatment, and theranostics. Pharmaceutics, 13(5), 723. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics13050723
Cano-Cortes, M. V., et al. (2020). A versatile theranostic nanodevice based on an orthogonal bioconjugation strategy for efficient targeted treatment and monitoring of triple negative breast cancer. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine, 24, 102120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2019.102120
Choi, S. (2020). Activation strategies in image-guided nanotherapeutic delivery. Journal of Nanotheranostics, 1(1), 78–104. https://doi.org/10.3390/jnt1010007
Dahal, D., Ray, P., & Pan, D. (2021). Unlocking the power of optical imaging in the second biological window: Structuring near-infrared II materials from organic molecules to nanoparticles. WIREs Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology, 13(6). https://doi.org/10.1002/wnan.1734
de Oliveira, M. A., et al. (2019). IR780-polymer conjugates for stable near-infrared labeling of biodegradable polyester-based nanocarriers. European Polymer Journal, 120(June), 109255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2019.109255
de Paula, C. S., et al. (2013). Chloroaluminium phthalocyanine polymeric nanoparticles as photosensitisers: Photophysical and physicochemical characterisation, release and phototoxicity in vitro. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 49(3), 371–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejps.2013.03.011
Diao, S., et al. (2015). Fluorescence imaging in vivo at wavelengths beyond 1500 nm. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 54(49), 14758–14762. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.201507473
Ding, F., et al. (2018). Recent advances in near-infrared II fluorophores for multifunctional biomedical imaging. Chemical Science, 9(19), 4370–4380. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8SC01153B
Dolmans, D. E. J. G. J., Fukumura, D., & Jain, R. K. (2003). Photodynamic therapy for cancer. Nature Reviews Cancer, 3(5), 380–387. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc1071
El-Say, K. M., & El-Sawy, H. S. (2017). Polymeric nanoparticles: Promising platform for drug delivery. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 528(1–2), 675–691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.06.052
Ema, M., Gamo, M., & Honda, K. (2016). A review of toxicity studies of single-walled carbon nanotubes in laboratory animals. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 74, 42–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.11.015
Frangioni, J. (2003). In vivo near-infrared fluorescence imaging. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, 7(5), 626–634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpa.2003.08.007
Gao, D., et al. (2020). Multifunctional phototheranostic nanomedicine for cancer imaging and treatment. Materials Today Bio, 5, 100035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtbio.2019.100035
Guo, Z., et al. (2014). Recent progress in the development of near-infrared fluorescent probes for bioimaging applications. Chemical Society Reviews, 43(1), 16–29. https://doi.org/10.1039/C3CS60271K
He, H., et al. (2018a). Selective cancer treatment via photodynamic sensitization of hypoxia-responsive drug delivery. Nanoscale, 10(6), 2856–2865. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7NR07677K
He, S., et al. (2018b). Crucial breakthrough of second near-infrared biological window fluorophores: Design and synthesis toward multimodal imaging and theranostics. Chemical Society Reviews, 47(12), 4258–4278. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8CS00234G
Hobbs, S. K., et al. (1998). Regulation of transport pathways in tumor vessels: Role of tumor type and microenvironment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 95(8), 4607–4612. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.95.8.4607
Jablonowski, L. J., et al. (2017). Shell effects on acoustic performance of a drug-delivery system activated by ultrasound. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A, 105(11), 3189–3196. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.36165
Jacquart, A., et al. (2013). LipImageâ„¢ 815: Novel dye-loaded lipid nanoparticles for long-term and sensitive in vivo near-infrared fluorescence imaging. Journal of Biomedical Optics, 18(10), 101311. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.JBO.18.10.101311
Jiang, C., et al. (2015). Hydrophobic IR780 encapsulated in biodegradable human serum albumin nanoparticles for photothermal and photodynamic therapy. Acta Biomaterialia, 14, 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2014.11.041
Jiang, Y., et al. (2020). Transformable hybrid semiconducting polymer nanozyme for second near-infrared photothermal ferrotherapy. Nature Communications, 11(1), 1857. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-15730-x
Jiang, Y., et al. (2022). Enhanced thermodynamic, pharmacokinetic and theranostic properties of polymeric micelles via hydrophobic core-clustering of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. Biomaterials Research, 26(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40824-022-00255-9
Jin, T. (2019). Critical review—recent progress in NIR fluorophores emitting over 1000 nm for bioimaging. ECS Journal of Solid State Science and Technology, 8(1), R9–R13. https://doi.org/10.1149/2.0111901jss
Kim, E.-J., et al. (2016). In vivo fluorescence imaging to assess early therapeutic response to tumor progression in a xenograft cancer model. Biotechnology and Bioprocess Engineering, 21(4), 567–572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12257-016-0251-0
Kim, K. R., et al. (2021). Theranostic potential of biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles with paclitaxel and curcumin against breast carcinoma. Biomaterials Science, 9(10), 3750–3761. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1BM00370D
Kolokithas-Ntoukas, A., et al. (2021). Condensed clustered iron oxides for ultrahigh photothermal conversion and in vivo multimodal imaging. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 13(25), 29247–29256. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c00908
Kuang, Y., et al. (2017). Hydrophobic IR-780 dye encapsulated in cRGD-conjugated solid lipid nanoparticles for NIR imaging-guided photothermal therapy. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 9(14), 12217–12226. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.6b16705
Kwiatkowski, S., et al (2018) Photodynamic therapy – mechanisms photosensitizers and combinations. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 106, 1098–1107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2018.07.049
Leeds, N. E. (1990). The clinical application of radiopharmaceuticals. Drugs, 40(5), 713–721. https://doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199040050-00006
Li, H., et al. (2016). Dual-function nanostructured lipid carriers to deliver IR780 for breast cancer treatment: Anti-metastatic and photothermal anti-tumor therapy. Acta Biomaterialia, 53, 399–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2017.01.070
Lian, H., et al. (2017). Self-assembled albumin nanoparticles for combination therapy in prostate cancer. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 12, 7777–7787. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S144634
Liechty, W. B., & Peppas, N. A. (2012). Expert opinion: Responsive polymer nanoparticles in cancer therapy. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, 80(2), 241–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpb.2011.08.004
Lin, T., et al. (2017). Self-assembled tumor-targeting hyaluronic acid nanoparticles for photothermal ablation in orthotopic bladder cancer. Acta Biomaterialia, 53, 427–438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2017.02.021
Liu, Z., et al. (2021). Inherently nitric oxide containing polymersomes remotely regulated by NIR for improving multi-modal therapy on drug resistant cancer. Biomaterials, 277, 121118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.121118
Luo, S., et al. (2011). A review of NIR dyes in cancer targeting and imaging. Biomaterials, 32(29), 7127–7138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.06.024
Luque-Michel, E., Lemaire, L., & Blanco-Prieto, M. J. (2021). SPION and doxorubicin-loaded polymeric nanocarriers for glioblastoma theranostics. Drug Delivery and Translational Research, 11(2), 515–523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13346-020-00880-8
Machado, M. G. C., et al. (2020). Labeling PLA-PEG nanocarriers with IR780: Physical entrapment versus covalent attachment to polylactide. Drug Delivery and Translational Research, 10(6), 1626–1643. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13346-020-00812-6
Machado, M. G. C., et al. (2022). Photodynamic therapy with the dual-mode association of IR780 to PEG-PLA nanocapsules and the effects on human breast cancer cells. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 145, 112464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112464
Maeda, H., et al. (2000). Tumor vascular permeability and the EPR effect in macromolecular therapeutics: A review. Journal of Controlled Release, 65(1–2), 271–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-3659(99)00248-5
Misra, R., Acharya, S., & Sahoo, S. K. (2010). Cancer nanotechnology: Application of nanotechnology in cancer therapy. Drug Discovery Today, 15(19–20), 842–850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2010.08.006
Mosqueira, V. C. F., et al. (2001). Biodistribution of long-circulating PEG-grafted nanocapsules in mice: Effects of PEG chain length and density. Pharmaceutical Research, 18(10), 1411–1419. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1012248721523
Nicolas, J., et al. (2013). Design, functionalization strategies and biomedical applications of targeted biodegradable/biocompatible polymer-based nanocarriers for drug delivery. Chemical Society Reviews, 42(3), 1147–1235. https://doi.org/10.1039/C2CS35265F
Nottelet, B., Darcos, V., & Coudane, J. (2015). Aliphatic polyesters for medical imaging and theranostic applications. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, 97, 350–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpb.2015.06.023
Pais-Silva, C., de Melo-Diogo, D., & Correia, I. J. (2017). IR780-loaded TPGS-TOS micelles for breast cancer photodynamic therapy. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics, 113, 108–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpb.2017.01.002
Pound-Lana, G. E. N., et al. (2019). Phthalocyanine photosensitizer in polyethylene glycol-block-poly(lactide-co-benzyl glycidyl ether) nanocarriers: Probing the contribution of aromatic donor-acceptor interactions in polymeric nanospheres. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 94(August 2018), 220–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2018.09.022
Qian, G., Gao, J. P., & Wang, Z. Y. (2012). Near-infrared chemiluminescence tunable from 900 nm to 1700 nm from narrow-bandgap compounds and polymers. Chemical Communications, 48(51), 6426. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2cc32624h
Reisch, A., & Klymchenko, A. S. (2016). Fluorescent polymer nanoparticles based on dyes: Seeking brighter tools for bioimaging. Small, 12(15), 1968–1992. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201503396
Seo, Y., et al. (2022). Poly(2-oxazoline)-magnetite NanoFerrogels: Magnetic field responsive theranostic platform for cancer drug delivery and imaging. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine, 39, 102459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2021.102459
Sharma, U., Badyal, N., & Gupta, S. (2015). Polymeric nanoparticles drug delivery to brain: A review. International Journal of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2(5), 60–69.
Sharpe, E., et al. (2020). From patent to patient: Analysing access to innovative cancer drugs. Drug Discovery Today, 25(9), 1561–1568. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2020.01.004
Strebhardt, K., & Ullrich, A. (2008). Paul Ehrlich’s magic bullet concept: 100 years of progress. Nature Reviews Cancer, 8(6), 473–480. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc2394
Torchilin, V. (2011). Tumor delivery of macromolecular drugs based on the EPR effect. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 63(3), 131–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2010.03.011
Treekoon, J., et al. (2021). Aza-BODIPY encapsulated polymeric nanoparticles as an effective nanodelivery system for photodynamic cancer treatment. Materials Chemistry Frontiers, 5(5), 2283–2293. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0QM00891E
Tsai, M.-H., et al. (2017). Photothermal, targeting, theranostic near-infrared nanoagent with SN38 against colorectal cancer for chemothermal therapy. Molecular Pharmaceutics, 14(8), 2766–2780. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.7b00315
Tuguntaev, R. G., et al. (2022). Bioimaging guided pharmaceutical evaluations of nanomedicines for clinical translations. Journal of Nanobiotechnology, 20(1), 236. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-022-01451-4
Ulrich, G., Ziessel, R., & Harriman, A. (2008). The chemistry of fluorescent bodipy dyes: versatility unsurpassed. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 47(7), 1184–1201. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.200702070
Upputuri, P. K., & Pramanik, M. (2020). Recent advances in photoacoustic contrast agents for in vivo imaging. WIREs Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology, 12(4). https://doi.org/10.1002/wnan.1618
Walia, S., & Acharya, A. (2016). Theragnosis: Nanoparticles as a tool for simultaneous therapy and diagnosis. In Nanoscale materials in targeted drug delivery, Theragnosis and Tissue Regeneration (pp. 127–152). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0818-4_6
Wang, K., et al. (2016). Self-assembled IR780-loaded transferrin nanoparticles as an imaging, targeting and PDT/PTT agent for cancer therapy. Scientific Reports, 6(1), 27421. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep27421
Xiang, Q., et al. (2021). Increased photodynamic therapy sensitization in tumors using a nitric oxide-based nanoplatform with ATP-production blocking capability. Theranostics, 11(4), 1953–1969. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.52997
Xue, X., et al. (2018). Trojan Horse nanotheranostics with dual transformability and multifunctionality for highly effective cancer treatment. Nature Communications, 9(1), 3653. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-06093-5
Yan, F., et al. (2016). NIR-laser-controlled drug release from DOX/IR-780-loaded temperature-sensitive-liposomes for chemo-photothermal synergistic tumor therapy. Theranostics, 6(13), 2337–2351. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.14937
Yang, Z., et al. (2018). Thermo- and pH-dual responsive polymeric micelles with upper critical solution temperature behavior for photoacoustic imaging-guided synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy against subcutaneous and metastatic breast tumors. Theranostics, 8(15), 4097–4115. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.26195
Yang, H., et al. (2021a). Preparation of multifunctional nanobubbles and their application in bimodal imaging and targeted combination therapy of early pancreatic cancer. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 6254. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-82602-9
Yang, Y., et al. (2021b). Self-assembled multifunctional polymeric micelles for tumor-specific bioimaging and synergistic chemo-phototherapy of cancer. International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 602, 120651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120651
Yi, X., et al. (2014). Near-infrared fluorescent probes in cancer imaging and therapy: An emerging field. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 9, 1347. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S60206
Yuan, L., et al. (2012). A unique approach to development of near-infrared fluorescent sensors for in vivo imaging. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 134(32), 13510–13523. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja305802v
Yuan, A., et al. (2013). Application of near-infrared dyes for tumor imaging, photothermal, and photodynamic therapies. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 102(1), 6–28. https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.23356
Yuan, A., et al. (2015). Self-assembled PEG-IR-780-C13 micelle as a targeting, safe and highly-effective photothermal agent for in vivo imaging and cancer therapy. Biomaterials, 51, 184–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.01.069
Yue, C., et al. (2013). IR-780 dye loaded tumor targeting theranostic nanoparticles for NIR imaging and photothermal therapy. Biomaterials, 34(28), 6853–6861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.05.071
Zhang, C., et al. (2010). A near-infrared fluorescent heptamethine indocyanine dye with preferential tumor accumulation for in vivo imaging. Biomaterials, 31(25), 6612–6617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.05.007
Zhang, X., et al. (2012). Near-infrared molecular probes for in vivo imaging. In Current protocols in cytometry. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471142956.cy1227s60
Zhang, E., et al. (2014). Mechanistic study of IR-780 dye as a potential tumor targeting and drug delivery agent. Biomaterials, 35(2), 771–778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.10.033
Zhang, H., et al. (2018). Self-assembled minimalist multifunctional theranostic nanoplatform for magnetic resonance imaging-guided tumor photodynamic therapy. ACS Nano, 12(8), 8266–8276. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.8b03529
Zhang, X., et al. (2021). Acidic microenvironment responsive polymeric MOF-based nanoparticles induce immunogenic cell death for combined cancer therapy. Journal of Nanobiotechnology, 19(1), 455. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-021-01217-4
Zhao, C., et al. (2018). Photosensitive nanoparticles combining vascular-independent Intratumor distribution and on-demand oxygen-depot delivery for enhanced cancer photodynamic therapy. Small, 14(12), 1703045. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201703045
Zhu, J. et al. (2020) ‘Surface-Charge-Switchable Nanoclusters for Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Guided and Glutathione Depletion-Enhanced Photodynamic Therapy’, ACS Nano, 14(9), pp. 11225–11237. doi: 10.1021/acsnano.0c03080.
Zhou, H., et al. (2016). Superstable magnetic nanoparticles in conjugation with near-infrared dye as a multimodal theranostic platform. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 8(7), 4424–4433. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b11308
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Mosqueira, V.C.F., Machado, M.G.C., de Oliveira, M.A. (2023). Polymeric Nanocarriers in Cancer Theranostics. In: Almeida de Sousa, Â.M., Pienna Soares, C., Chorilli, M. (eds) Cancer Nanotechnology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-17831-3_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-17831-3_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-17830-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-17831-3
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)