Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Assisted Reproductive Technologies

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Analysing Gender in Healthcare

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in Public Health Policy Research ((PSPHPR))

  • 177 Accesses

Abstract

Legal control of infertility has privileged traditional family formations, constraining the reconstruction of motherhood. Regional variation in NHS-funded assisted reproductive technologies (ART) reflects this, with government support for social determinations of IVF access made by Clinical Commissioning Groups (CCGs). Compared to steadfast age restrictions, a marginal rise in access rates for same sex couples reveals the bargaining chip of legal action for patients. This is limited to individual cases, however, with the community yet unable to fully capitalise on a wider paradigm shift around same sex marriage, and establish habitual patterns of successful interaction to inform the policy process. Despite COVID-19 regulations extending the statutory storage limit for frozen eggs, sperms and embryos, treatment delays are set to further exacerbate barriers for these intersections.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adamson, G. D. (2009). Global cultural and socioeconomic factors that influence access to assisted reproductive technologies. Women’s Health, 5(4), 351–358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahamat, N. (2012). Access all ages: Assessing the impact of age on access to surgical treatment. The Bulletin of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 94(9), 300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Almack, K. (2006). Seeking sperm: Accounts of lesbian couples’ reproductive decision-making and understandings of the needs of the child. International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family, 20(1), 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, R. A., Davies, M. C., Lavery, S. A., & Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. (2020). Elective egg freezing for non‐medical reasons: Scientific impact paper no. 63. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 127(9), e113–e121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arny, M., & Quagliarello, J. R. (1987, February). History of artificial insemination: A tribute to Sophia Kleegman, MD. Seminars in Reproductive Endocrinology, 5(1), 1–3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arthur, I. D., Anthony, F. W., Masson, G. M., & Thomas, E. J. (1994). The selection criteria on an IVF program can remove the association between maternal age and implantation. Acta Obstetricia Et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 73(7), 562–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baillie, L., & Matiti, M. (2013). Dignity, equality and diversity: An exploration of how discriminatory behaviour of healthcare workers affects patient dignity. Diversity in Health and Social Care, 10(1), 5–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ball, P. (2008, July 8). ‘Seven ways IVF changed the world—From Louise Brown to stem-cell research’. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jul/08/ivf-in-vitro-fertilisation-louise-brown-born. Accessed 29 Apr 2021.

  • Barnett, M., Fotheringham, F., Hutton, V., & O’Loughlin, K. (2021). Heterosexism and cisgenderism. In Multicultural responsiveness in counselling and psychology (pp. 153–178). Palgrave Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barra, F., La Rosa, V. L., Vitale, S. G., Commodari, E., Altieri, M., Scala, C., & Ferrero, S. (2021). Psychological status of infertile patients who had in vitro fertilization treatment interrupted or postponed due to COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 42, 1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartholomew, G. W. (1960). The report of the Feversham Committee—A sterile solution. University of Malaya Law Review, 2(2), 201–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton, M., Waler, K., & Weisner, B. (1945). Artificial insemination. British Medical Journal, 1, 40–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • BBC News. (2018, September 24). Women harassed after seeking sperm donors online. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-tyne-45573053. Accessed 10 Apr 2020.

  • BBC News. (2019, October 28). Frozen eggs storage 10-year limit ‘should be changed’. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-50182675. Accessed 19 Mar 2021.

  • Ben-Kimhy, R., Youngster, M., Medina-, T. R., Avraham, S., Gat, I., Marom, L., Hourvitz, A., & Kedem, A. (2020). Fertility patients under COVID-19: Attitudes, perceptions and psychological reactions. Human Reproduction, 35(12), 2774–2783.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bentley, G. R., & Mascie-Taylor, C. N. (Eds.). (2000). Infertility in the modern world: Present and future prospects (No. 12). Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhattacharya, S., Maheshwari, A., Ratna, M. B., van Eekelen, R., Mol, B. W., & McLernon, D. J. (2021). Prioritizing IVF treatment in the post-COVID 19 era: A predictive modelling study based on UK national data. Human Reproduction, 36(3), 666–675.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boivin, J., Harrison, C., Mathur, R., Burns, G., Pericleous-Smith, A., & Gameiro, S. (2020). Patient experiences of fertility clinic closure during the COVID-19 pandemic: Appraisals, coping and emotions. Human Reproduction, 35(11), 2556–2566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewster, K. L., Tillman, K. H., & Jokinen-Gordon, H. (2014). Demographic characteristics of lesbian parents in the United States. Population Research and Policy Review, 33(4), 503–526.

    Google Scholar 

  • British Fertility Society (BFS). (2020). An open letter to members of the British Fertility Society and the association of reproductive and clinical scientists and persons responsible for UK licenced fertility services. https://www.britishfertilitysociety.org.uk/2020/03/23/open-letter-covid-19/. Accessed 2 Mar 2021.

  • Cannell, E. (2008). Postcode lottery for fertility-preservation facilities. The Lancet Oncology, 9(3), 206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavaliere, G., & Fletcher, J. R. (2021). Age-discriminated IVF access and evidence-based ageism: Is there a better way? Science, Technology, & Human Values. https://doi.org/10.1177/01622439211021914

  • Checkland, K. (2004). National service frameworks and UK general practitioners: Street-level bureaucrats at work? Sociology of Health & Illness, 26(7), 951–975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clinical Commissioning Groups’ Priorities Committee. (2014). Assisted conception services. https://www.hampshiresouthamptonandisleofwightccg.nhs.uk/aboutus/all-document/about-us/clinical-commissioning-policies/10-ship-priorities-statement/file. Accessed 25 Apr 2021.

  • Cohen, J., Trounson, A., Dawson, K., Jones, H., Hazekamp, J., Nygren, K. G., & Hamberger, L. (2005). The early days of IVF outside the UK. Human Reproduction Update, 11(5), 439–460.

    Google Scholar 

  • D (A Child) Re [2001] EWCA Civ 230.

    Google Scholar 

  • D (a child), Re [2005] UKHL 33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, M. J., Rumbold, A. R., & Moore, V. M. (2017). Assisted reproductive technologies: A hierarchy of risks for conception, pregnancy outcomes and treatment decisions. Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, 8(4), 443–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Mouzon, J., Chambers, G. M., Zegers-Hochschild, F., Mansour, R., Ishihara, O., Banker, M., Dyer, S., Kupka, M., & Adamson, G. D. (2020). International Committee for Monitoring Assisted Reproductive Technologies world report: Assisted reproductive technology 2012. Human Reproduction, 35(8), 1900–1913.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey, D., Power, J., & Kelly, F. (2020). A perfect storm of intervention? Lesbian and cisgender queer women conceiving through Australian fertility clinics. Critical Public Health, 32, 1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Health (DoH). (2005). Review of the Human Fertilization and Embryology Act. HM Government.

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Health (DoH). (2009). Impact Assessment for the HFE (Statutory storage period for embryos and gametes regulations). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/213877/dh_116487.pdf. Accessed 7 Apr 2021.

  • Department of Health (DoH). (2012). Implementing a ban on age discrimination in the NHS—Making effective, appropriate decisions. HM Government.

    Google Scholar 

  • Department of Health and Social Care (DHSS). (2020). Health Secretary welcomes reopening of fertility services. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/news/health-secretary-welcomes-reopening-of-fertility-services. Accessed 13 December 2022.

  • Department of Health and Social Care. (2021). Regulatory triage assessment: For increasing gamete and embryo storage limit to a maximum of 55 years for all. https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/egg-sperm-and-embryo-storage-limits/outcome/regulatory-triage-assessment-for-increasing-gamete-and-embryo-storage-limits-to-a-maximum-of-55-years-for-all. Accessed 30 Nov 2021.

  • Donnelly, L. (2012, December 1). Couple sue for IVF in landmark ‘age discrimination’ case. The Telegraph. Available at: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/health/news/9716432/Couple-sue-for-IVF-in-landmark-age-discrimination-case.html. Accessed 13 December 2022.

  • Duffy (2019, July 5). Health Secretary Matt Hancock seeks IVF equality for same-sex couples. Pink News. https://www.pinknews.co.uk/2019/07/05/health-secretary-matt-hancock-seeks-ivf-equality-for-same-sex-couples/. Accessed 2 Apr 2021.

  • Dyer, C. (2009). Experts suggest ways to tackle shortage of sperm donors. British Medical Journal, 2009(338), b2620.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyer, S. J., Vinoos, L., & Ataguba, J. E. (2017). Poor recovery of households from out-of-pocket payment for assisted reproductive technology. Human Reproduction, 32(12), 2431–2436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elmore, R. F. (1979). Backward mapping: Implementation research and policy decisions. Political Science Quarterly, 94(4), 601–616.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enson, S. (2015). Causes and consequences of heteronormativity in healthcare and education. British Journal of School Nursing, 10(2), 73–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • EoE CCG Fertility Consortium. (2015). Fertility services commissioning policy. https://castlepointandrochfordccg.nhs.uk/about-us/our-governing-body/governing-body-meetings/2014-2/governing-body-29-may-2014/722-item-08-0a-appendix-1-eoe-fertility-services-commissioning-policy-290514/file. Accessed 24 Apr 2021.

  • Evans, J. G. (1997). The rationing debate: Rationing health care by age—The case against. British Medical Journal, 314(7083), 822.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everett, B. G., Higgins, J. A., Haider, S., & Carpenter, E. (2019). Do sexual minorities receive appropriate sexual and reproductive health care and counseling? Journal of Women's Health, 28(1), 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2017.6866

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Faddy, M. J., Gosden, M. D., & Gosden, R. G. (2018). A demographic projection of the contribution of assisted reproductive technologies to world population growth. Reproductive Biomedicine Online, 36(4), 455–458.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fauser, B. C. (2019). Towards the global coverage of a unified registry of IVF outcomes. Reproductive Biomedicine Online, 38(2), 133–137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fertility Network UK. (2017). NHS funding in Scotland. https://fertilitynetworkuk.org/access-support/nhs-funding/scotland/. Accessed 18 Mar 2021.

  • Feversham Committee. (1960). Report of the departmental committee on human artificial insemination. HMSO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fielden, S. L., & Jepson, H. (2018). Lesbian career experiences. In Research handbook of diversity and careers. Edward Elgar Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forster, P. (1993). The fortysomething barrier: Medicine and age discrimination. British Medical Journal, 306(6878), 637–639.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh, K. (2017). Birth characteristics in England and Wales: 2017. Office for National Statistics. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/livebirths/bulletins/birthcharacteristicsinenglandandwales/2017#average-ages-of-mothers-and-fathers-of-all-babies-have-continued-to-rise. Accessed 25 Apr 2021.

  • Gleicher, N., Kushnir, V. A., Albertini, D. F., & Barad, D. H. (2016). Improvements in IVF in women of advanced age. Journal of Endocrinology, 230(1), F1–F6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, A. G., & Magos, A. L. (1989). 1 The development of laparoscopic surgery. Baillière’s Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 3(3), 429–449.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gottlieb, G. (2015). Is the NHS ageist? The Bulletin of the Royal College of Surgeons of England, 97(9), 405–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gupta, M., Jaiswal, P., Bansiwal, R., Sethi, A., Vanamail, P., Kachhawa, G., Kumari, R., & Mahey, R. (2020). Anxieties and apprehensions among women waiting for fertility treatments during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics: The Official Organ of the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 152, 441–443.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haham, L. M., Youngster, M., Shani, A. K., Yee, S., Ben-Kimhy, R., Medina, T. R., Hourvitz, A., Kedem, A., & Librach, C. (2021). Suspension of fertility treatment during the COVID-19 pandemic: Views, emotional reactions and psychological distress among women undergoing fertility treatment. Reproductive Biomedicine Online, 42(4), 849–858.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamidi, F., Babapour, F., & Hamzehgardeshi, Z. (2020). Infertility distress management in couples treated with assisted reproductive techniques (ART) in COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Reproduction & Infertility, 21(4), 312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, M., Pacey, A., Tomlinson, M., Brison, D., Shaw, L., Turner, C., Witjens, L., Morris, P., Brown, C., Montuschi, O., Adams, J., Lieberman, B., & Speirs, J. (2008). Working party on sperm donation services in the UK:Rreport and recommendations. Human Fertility, 11(3), 147–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harper, J., Jackson, E., Spoelstra-Witjens, L., & Reisel, D. (2017). Using an introduction website to start a family: Implications for users and health practitioners. Reproductive Biomedicine & Society Online, 4, 13–17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, J. (2009). The plastic surgery postcode lottery in England. International Journal of Surgery, 7(6), 550–558.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hertfordshire and West Essex STP. (2020). Fertility treatment and referral criteria for tertiary level assisted conception. https://www.enhertsccg.nhs.uk/sites/default/files/documents/May2021/STP-IVF-Policy-v4.4-New-IVF-providers-on-PA-form-Final-a.pdf. Accessed 2 Apr 2021.

  • HFEA. (Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority). (2005). Tomorrow’s children: A consultation on guidance to licensed fertility clinics on taking into account the welfare of children to be born of assisted conception treatment. HEFA

    Google Scholar 

  • Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA). (2009). Code of practice (8th ed.). HFEA.

    Google Scholar 

  • HFEA. (Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority). (2020a). Family formations in fertility treatment. https://www.hfea.gov.uk/media/3234/family-formations-in-fertility-treatment-2018.pdf. Accessed 1 June 2021.

  • HFEA. (Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority). (2020b). Our response to the Department of Health and Social Care’s public consultation on gamete and embryo storage limits. https://www.hfea.gov.uk/about-us/news-and-press-releases/2020b-news-and-press-releases/our-response-to-the-department-of-health-and-social-care-s-public-consultation-on-gamete-and-embryo-storage-limits/. Accessed 29 Jan 2022.

  • HFEA. (Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority). (2021). Fertility treatment 2019: Trends and figures. https://www.hfea.gov.uk/about-us/publications/research-and-data/fertility-treatment-2019-trends-and-figures/. Accessed 3 June 2021.

  • Hill, C. (2020, March 23). Help others to be mothers: PET’s #ExtendTheLimit campaign relaunches for Mother's Day. BioNews. https://www.bionews.org.uk/page_148745. Accessed 29 Jan 2022.

  • HL (House of Lords) Debates. (1990). 20 March, cols 209–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • HL (House of Lords) Debates. (2019a). 20 February, cols 2266–2267.

    Google Scholar 

  • HL (House of Lords) Debates. (2019b). 22 October, cols 555–556.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horsey, K. (2006, September 18). Sperm donor ‘crisis’ in UK. Progress Educational Trust. Available at:https://www.progress.org.uk/sperm-donor-crisis-in-uk/. Accessed 13 December 2022.

  • Hutton. A. (2020, November 15). Wegan, the lesbian YouTube stars, demand end to ‘gay tax’ on IVF treatment. The Times. https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/wegan-the-lesbian-youtube-stars-demand-end-to-gay-tax-on-ivf-treatment-tcnhkknbh. Accessed 2 May 2021.

  • Iacobucci, G. (2013). More than a third of GPs on commissioning groups have conflicts of interest, BMJ investigation shows. British Medical Journal, 346, f1569.

    Google Scholar 

  • IFFS (International Federation of Fertility Societies). (2021). IFFS infographic campaign. https://www.iffsreproduction.org/page/infographic. Accessed 19 May 2021.

  • Inhorn, M. C., & Patrizio, P. (2015). Infertility around the globe: New thinking on gender, reproductive technologies and global movements in the 21st century. Human Reproduction Update, 21(4), 411–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, E. (2001). Regulating reproduction: Law, technology and autonomy. Bloomsbury Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jadva, V., Freeman, T., Tranfield, E., & Golombok, S. (2015). ‘Friendly allies in raising a child’: A survey of men and women seeking elective co-parenting arrangements via an online connection website. Human Reproduction, 30(8), 1896–1906.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jennings, S., Mellish, L., Tasker, F., Lamb, M., & Golombok, S. (2014). Why adoption? Gay, lesbian, and heterosexual adoptive parents’ reproductive experiences and reasons for adoption. Adoption Quarterly, 17(3), 205–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926755.2014.891549

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kane, R., & Kane, R. (2005). Ageism in healthcare and long-term care. Generations, 29(3), 49–54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kaur, H., Pranesh, G. T., & Rao, K. A. (2020). Emotional impact of delay in fertility treatment due to COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Human Reproductive Sciences, 13(4), 317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keeble, S. (1999). Fertility lottery. Nursing Standard (through 2013), 13(37), 22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H., Dawkins, J. C., Owen, D. M., Carr, B. R., & Wilson, E. (2020). Patient perceptions and impact of fertility treatment cancellation related to COVID-19. Fertility and Sterility, 114(3), e179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kingdon, J. (1984). Agendas, alternatives and public policies. Harper Collins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirubarajan, A., Patel, P., Tsang, J., Prethipan, T., Sreeram, P., & Sierra, S. (2021). The psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on fertility care: A qualitative systematic review. Human Fertility, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/14647273.2021.1938245

  • Klein, R. E. (1996). The NHS and the new scientism. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, 89(4), 320–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, S., Azgaonkar, H., Awasthi, R. T., Kapoor, A., & Srinivas, S. (2000). Role of intra-uterine insemination and sperm preparation techniques in treatment of unexplained infertility and male infertility. Medical Journal Armed Forces India, 56(3), 209–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawson, A. K., McQueen, D. B., Swanson, A. C., Confino, R., Feinberg, E. C., & Pavone, M. E. (2021). Psychological distress and postponed fertility care during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics, 38(2), 333–341.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lea, L. (2016, October 27). ‘UK’s national sperm bank stops recruiting donors’. BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-37786576. Accessed 10 Feb 2021.

  • Ledger, W. L., & Skull, J. (2000). Rationing fertility services in the NHS: A provider’s perspective. Human Fertility, 3(3), 155–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, J. A., Briton-Jones, C., Hernandez-Nieto, C., Daneyko, M., McAvey, B., Flisser, E., Stein, D. E., Mukherjee, T., Sandler, B., & Copperman, A. B. (2020). IVF treatment pre-and post—The ASRM COVID-19 pause. Fertility and Sterility, 114(3), e180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust v A & Ors [2003] EWHC 259 (QB)Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust v A & Ors [2003] EWHC 259 (QB).

    Google Scholar 

  • Leigh Day. (2017). Same sex couple win fight for equality over IVF treatment. https://www.leighday.co.uk/latest-updates/news/2017-news/same-sex-couple-win-fight-for-equality-over-ivf-treatment/. Accessed 2 May 2021.

  • Li, F., Lu, H., Zhang, Q., Li, X., Liu, Q., Yang, Q., & Qiang, L. (2021). Impact of COVID-19 on female fertility: A systematic review and meta-analysis protocol. British Medical Journal Open, 11(2), e045524.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipsky, M. (1980). Street-level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public service. Russell Sage Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Little, B., & Terrance, C. (2010). Perceptions of domestic violence in lesbian relationships: Stereotypes and gender role expectations. Journal of Homosexuality, 57(3), 429–440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lo, W., & Campo-Engelstein, L. (2018). Expanding the clinical definition of infertility to include socially infertile individuals and couples. In Reproductive ethics II (pp. 71–83). Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord, J., Shaw, L., Dobbs, F., & Acharya, U. (2001). A time for change and a time for equality—Infertility services and the NHS. Human Fertility, 4(4), 256–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maclennan v. Maclennan [1958] ScotCS CSOH_5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mannion, R. (2011). General practitioner-led commissioning in the NHS: Progress, prospects and pitfalls. British Medical Bulletin, 97(1), 7–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mascarenhas, M. N., Flaxman, S. R., Boerma, T., Vanderpoel, S., & Stevens, G. A. (2012). National, regional, and global trends in infertility prevalence since 1990: A systematic analysis of 277 health surveys. PLoS Medicine, 9(12), e1001356.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayor, S. (2019). More than a third of CCGs and trusts fail to show value for money, says public spending watchdog. British Medical Journal, 2019(364), l1205.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCandless, J., & Sheldon, S. (2010). The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act (2008) and the Tenacity of the Sexual Family Form 1. The Modern Law Review, 73(2), 175–207.

    Google Scholar 

  • McWhirter, M., & McQueen, D. (2000). Rationing and NHS fertility services: A commissioning perspective. Human Fertility, 3(4), 271–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merhi, Z., & Zhang, J. (2020). At-Home IVF kit: Application during the COVID-19 pandemic. Clinical and Experimental Obstetrics & Gynecology, 47(5), 653–659.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mills, M., Rindfuss, R. R., McDonald, P., & Te Velde, E. (2011). Why do people postpone parenthood? Reasons and social policy incentives. Human Reproduction Update, 17(6), 848–860.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morshed-Behbahani, B., Lamyian, M., Joulaei, H., Rashidi, B. H., & Montazeri, A. (2020). Infertility policy analysis: A comparative study of selected lower middle-middle-and high-income countries. Globalization and Health, 16(1), 1–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mulkay, M. (1997). The embryo research debate: Science and the politics of reproduction. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Naylor, C., Curry, N., Holder, H., Ross, S., Marshall, L., & Tait, E. (2013). Clinical commissioning groups. Supporting improvement in general practice. The King’s Fund and Nuffield Trust.

    Google Scholar 

  • NHS. (2022). Overview: IVF. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ivf/. Accessed 29 Jan 2022.

  • NHS Barnsley CCG. (2020). Access to infertility—Commissioning policy document. https://www.barnsleyccg.nhs.uk/CCG%20Downloads/CCG%20Documents/Policies/Approved/FINALAccess%20to%20infertility%20treatment%20%20V11%20FINALfeb2020%20BCCG%20adopted.pdf. Accessed 24 Apr 2021.

  • NHS Birmingham and Solihull. (2018). Policy for assisted conception. https://www.birminghamandsolihullccg.nhs.uk/about-us/publications/policies/2408-policy-for-assisted-conception-1/file. Accessed 24 Apr 2021.

  • NHS Brighton and Hove CCG. (2015). Template criteria for NHS funded assisted reproductive technologies. https://www.brightonandhoveccg.nhs.uk/about-us/policies-and-procedures/. Accessed 24 Apr 2021.

  • NHS Bury. (2019). Assisted conception policy. http://northwestcsu.nhs.uk/BrickwallResource/GetResource/b62b52e4-89f3-4f81-8007-a7a4a24b050d. Accessed 24 Apr 2021.

  • NHS Dorset. (2018). Fertility—Assisted conception. https://www.dorsetccg.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Fertility-Policy.pdf. Accessed 24 Apr 2021.

  • NHS East Lancashire CCG. (2018). Policy for assisted conception services. https://eastlancsccg.nhs.uk/news/803-implementation-of-revised-and-updated-clinical-policy-on-assisted-conception-services-including-ivf. Accessed 25 Apr 2021.

  • NHS Luton CCG. (2016). GP checklist for LCCG fertility services commissioning policy. https://www.blmkccg.nhs.uk/about-us/our-policies/luton-ccg/. Accessed 24 May 2021.

  • NHS South Warwickshire. (2016). Assisted conception treatments. https://www.southwarwickshireccg.nhs.uk/mf.ashx?ID=3320d3cc-6894-45be-b202-344304dc3dcd. Accessed 24 May 2021.

  • NHS Wolverhampton CCG. (2014). Assisted conception policy. https://wolverhamptonccg.nhs.uk/publications/corporate/commissioning-policies-1/483-assisted-conception-policy-1/file. Accessed 24 May 2021.

  • NICE (National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence). (2004). CG11 fertility NICE guideline. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG11. Accessed 22 Nov 2020.

  • NICE (National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence). (2013). CG156 fertility NICE guideline. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg156/resources/fertility-problems-assessment-and-treatment-pdf-35109634660549. Accessed 2 Apr 2021.

  • O’Donnell, C., Manché, M., Kingsland, C., Haddad, N., & Brickwood, P. (2005). NHS funded fertility treatment—A national service in name only? Human Fertility, 8(4), 217–224.

    Google Scholar 

  • Office for National Statistics (ONS). (2017). Births in England and Wales: 2017. Office for National Statistics. Available at: https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/livebirths/bulletins/birthsummarytablesenglandandwales/2016. Accessed 12 December 2022.

  • Office for National Statistics. (2019). Families and households in the UK: 2019. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/families/bulletins/familiesandhouseholds/2019. Accessed 2 May 2021.

  • Ombelet, W., & Van Robays, J. (2015). Artificial insemination history: Hurdles and milestones. Facts, Views & Vision in ObGyn, 7(2), 137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Orvieto, R., Segev-Zahav, A., & Aizer, A. (2021). Does COVID-19 infection influence patients’ performance during IVF-ET cycle? An observational study. Gynecological Endocrinology, 37, 895–897.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ory, S. J., Miller, K. A., Horton, M., & Giudice, L. (2020). The global impact of COVID-19 on infertility services. Global Reproductive Health, 5, 10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owen-Smith, A., Kipping, R., Donovan, J., Hine, C., Maslen, C., & Coast, J. (2013). A NICE example? Variation in provision of bariatric surgery in England. British Medical Journal, 346, f2453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perone, H. R., Stump, H., Herweck, A., Levine, H., Wong, A. J., & Carugno, J. (2020). Trends in social media topics during COVID-19 among women undergoing assisted reproductive technology treatments. Cureus, 12(10), e11049.

    Google Scholar 

  • PET (Progress Educational Trust). (2019). Help others to be mothers—#ExtendTheLimit on social egg freezing. https://www.progress.org.uk/extendthelimit. Accessed 19 Mar 2021.

  • Pulse. (2012). CCG leaders back IVF age restriction subject to legal challenge. https://www.pulsetoday.co.uk/news/politics/ccg-leaders-back-ivf-age-restriction-subject-to-legal-challenge/. Accessed 2 May 2021.

  • R (on the application of TT) v The Registrar General for England and Wales and others. (2019). EWHC 2384 (Fam).

    Google Scholar 

  • R (on the application of McConnell) (Appellant) v Registrar General for England and Wales (Respondent), UKSC 2020/0092.

    Google Scholar 

  • Re B (Parentage) [1996] 2 FLR 15, 21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Romanski, P. A., Bortoletto, P., Rosenwaks, Z., & Schattman, G. L. (2020). Delay in IVF treatment up to 180 days does not affect pregnancy outcomes in women with diminished ovarian reserve. Human Reproduction, 35(7), 1630–1636.

    Google Scholar 

  • Şahin, B., Şahin, B., Karlı, P., Sel, G., Hatırnaz, Ş, Kara, O. F., & Tinelli, A. (2021). Level of depression and hopelessness among women with infertility during the outbreak of COVID-19: A cross-sectional investigation. Clinical and Experimental Obstetrics & Gynecology, 48(3), 594–600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sajjadi, N. B., Nowlin, W., Nowlin, R., Wenger, D., Beal, J. M., Vassar, M., & Hartwell, M. (2021). United States internet searches for “infertility” following COVID-19 vaccine misinformation. Journal of Osteopathic Medicine, 121(6), 583–587.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scottish Government. (2021). A Scotland for the future: The opportunities and challenges of Scotland’s changing population. APS Group.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scottish Government. (2022). Coronavirus (COVID-19): Fertility treatment for unvaccinated patients. https://www.gov.scot/publications/coronavirus-covid-19-fertility-treatment-for-unvaccinated-patients/. Accessed 31 Mar 2022.

  • Segar, J., Checkland, K., Coleman, A., McDermott, I., Harrison, S., & Peckham, S. (2014). Changing the ties that bind? The emerging roles and identities of general practitioners and managers in the new clinical commissioning groups in the English NHS. SAGE Open, 4(4), 2158244014554203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seifer, D. B., Petok, W. D., Agrawal, A., Glenn, T. L., Bayer, A. H., Witt, B. R., Burgin, B. D., & Lieman, H. J. (2021). Psychological experience and coping strategies of patients in the Northeast US delaying care for infertility during the COVID-19 pandemic. Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology, 19(1), 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, L. M., Balen, A., Lenton, E., Brown, C., & Greenwood, B. (2002). National Health Service provision for the management of infertility: The case for funding and reorganization of fertility services in the UK. Human Fertility, 5(4), 167–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silverio-Murillo, A., Hoehn-Velasco, L., de la Miyar, J. R. B., & Rodríguez, A. (2021). COVID-19 and women’s health: Examining changes in mental health and fertility. Economics Letters, 199, 109729.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S., & Marshall, O. (2020). BPAS investigation into the IVF postcode lottery: An examination of CCG policy for the provision of fertility services. https://www.bpas.org/media/3369/bpas-fertility-ivf-postcode-lottery-report.pdf. Accessed 24 May 2021.

  • Stevens, A. (2009, July 27). HFEA calls for debate around payment for sperm and egg donation. BioNews. https://www.bionews.org.uk/page_91741. Accessed 29 Jan 2022.

  • Stonewall. (2015). Donor insemination and fertility treatment. https://www.stonewall.org.uk/help-advice/parenting-rights/donor-insemination-and-fertility-treatment-0. Accessed 24 May 2021.

  • Suchartwatnachai, C., Wongkularb, A., Srisombut, C., Choktanasiri, W., Chinsomboon, S., & Rojanasakul, A. (2000). Cost-effectiveness of IVF in women 38 years and older. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 69(2), 143–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tan, J., Dahan, M. H., Ata, M. B., Nair, S., Shoham, Z., & Tan, S. L. (2020). Trends in fertility practice during the COVID-19 pandemic: A global survey of 299 clinics representing 228,500 IVF cycles. Fertility and Sterility, 114(3), e523.

    Google Scholar 

  • The Guardian. (2010, October 12). Illegal infertility company owners given suspended prison sentence. https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2010/oct/12/illegal-fertility-company-owners-jail-term. Accessed 10 Apr 2021.

  • The Guardian. (2020, April 21). Coronavirus has slashed my chances of IVF treatmen. The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/apr/21/ivf-funding-cut-luxury-rich-coronavirus. Accessed 13 December.

  • The Law Commission. (1979). Family law illegitimacy (Working Paper No. 74). HM Stationery Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tippett, A. (2021). Life on pause: An analysis of UK fertility patients’ coping mechanisms after the cancellation of fertility treatment due to COVID-19. Journal of Health Psychology, 27(7), 1583–1600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tokgoz, V. Y., Kaya, Y., & Tekin, A. B. (2022). The level of anxiety in infertile women whose ART cycles are postponed due to the COVID-19 outbreak. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 43(2), 114–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/0167482X.2020.1806819

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tomlinson, M. J., Pooley, K., Pierce, A., & Hopkisson, J. F. (2010). Sperm donor recruitment within an NHS fertility service since the removal of anonymity. Human Fertility, 13(3), 159–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Toomey, R. B., Ryan, C., Diaz, R. M., Card, N. A., & Russell, S. T. (2013). Gender-nonconforming lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: School victimization and young adult psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1580–1589.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trounson, A., & Conti, A. (1982). Research in human in-vitro fertilisation and embryo transfer. British Medical Journal, 285(6337), 244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turkmendag, I., Dingwall, R., & Murphy, T. (2008). The removal of donor anonymity in the UK: The silencing of claims by would-be parents. International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family, 22(3), 283–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turocy, J. M., Robles, A., Hercz, D., D'Alton, M., Forman, E. J., & Williams, Z. (2020). The emotional impact of the ASRM guidelines on fertility patients during the COVID-19 pandemic. MedRxiv.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ubaldi, F. M., Cimadomo, D., Vaiarelli, A., Fabozzi, G., Venturella, R., Maggiulli, R., Mazzilli, R., Ferrero, S., Palagiano, A., & Rienzi, L. (2019). Advanced maternal age in IVF: Still a challenge? The present and the future of its treatment. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 10, 94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valerio, C., Vargas, K., & Raventós, H. (2017). IVF in Costa Rica. JBRA Assisted Reproduction, 21(4), 366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Opstal, J., Fieuws, S., Spiessens, C., & Soubry, A. (2021). Male age interferes with embryo growth in IVF treatment. Human Reproduction, 36(1), 107–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vaughan, D. A., Shah, J. S., Penzias, A. S., Domar, A. D., & Toth, T. L. (2020). Infertility remains a top stressor despite the COVID-19 pandemic. Reproductive Biomedicine Online, 41(3), 425–427.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, K. L. (2000). Equal access to assisted reproductive services: The effect of McBain v Victoria. Alternative Law Journal, 25(6), 288–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warnock Report. (1984). Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Human Fertilisation and Embryology, Department of Health and Social Security.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkes, S. (2012). Management of infertility in primary care. British Journal of Healthcare Management, 18(10), 528–533.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilkie, J. R. (1981). The trend toward delayed parenthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 43, 583–591.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, A. R. (2007). With friends like these: The liberalization of queer family policy. Critical Social Policy, 27(1), 50–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, C. (2020, November 28). ‘Scotland’s IVF treatment is the ‘gold standard’, say fertility experts’. The Herald. https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/18905055.scotlands-ivf-treatment-gold-standard-say-fertility-experts/. Accessed 18 May 2020.

  • Wykes, K. A. (2012). Fertility services for same-sex couples: Policy and practice. British Journal of Nursing, 21(14), 871–875. https://doi.org/10.12968/bjon.2012.21.14.871

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, C., Wu, J., Liang, Y., Yan, L., He, C., Chen, L., & Zhang, J. (2020). Fertility intentions among couples in Shanghai under COVID-19: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 151(3), 399–406.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Exeter, Exeter, UK

    Sarah Cooper

Authors
  1. Sarah Cooper
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sarah Cooper .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Cooper, S. (2022). Assisted Reproductive Technologies. In: Analysing Gender in Healthcare. Palgrave Studies in Public Health Policy Research. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08728-8_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation