Abstract
Scoliosis is a three dimensional deformity of the spine that is one of the most common musculoskeletal conditions in children.
This chapter reviews the most common etiologies of scoliosis as well as their respective diagnoses, natural histories and operative and non-operative treatments.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abdulian MH, Liu RW, Son-Hing JP, et al. Double rib penetration of the spinal canal in a patient with neurofibromatosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2011;31(1):6–10.
Abel MF, Singla A, Feger MA, et al. Surgical treatment of Lenke 5 adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: comparison of anterior vs posterior approach. World J Orthop. 2016;7(9):553–60.
Abousamra O, Nishnianidze T, Rogers KJ, et al. Correction of pelvic obliquity after spinopelvic fixation in children with cerebral palsy: a comparison study with minimum two-year follow-up. Spine Deform. 2016;4(3):217–24.
Abousamra O, Nishnianidze T, Rogers KJ, et al. Risk factors for pancreatitis after posterior spinal fusion in children with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2018;27(2):163–7.
Abousamra O, Sullivan BT, Samdani AF, et al. Three methods of pelvic fixation for scoliosis in children with cerebral palsy: differences at 5-year follow-up. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2019;44(1):E19–25.
Abul-Kasim K, Ohlin A. The rate of screw misplacement in segmental pedicle screw fixation in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Acta Orthop. 2011;82(1):50–5.
Acaroglu E, Akel I, Alanay A, et al. Comparison of the melatonin and calmodulin in paravertebral muscle and platelets of patients with or without adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(18):E659–63.
Acaroglu E, Yazici M, Alanay A, et al. Three-dimensional evolution of scoliotic curve during instrumentation without fusion in young children. J Pediatr Orthop. 2002;22(4):492–6.
Acosta FL Jr, Thompson TL, Campbell S, et al. Use of intraoperative isocentric C-arm 3D fluoroscopy for sextant percutaneous pedicle screw placement: case report and review of the literature. Spine J. 2005;5(3):339–43.
Adams W. Lectures on the pathology and treatment of lateral and other forms of curvature of the spine. London: Churchill; 1865.
Ahl T, Albertsson-Wikland K, Kalen R. Twenty-four-hour growth hormone profiles in pubertal girls with idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1988;13(2):139–42.
Ahmad A, Subramanian T, Panteliadis P, et al. Quantifying the ‘law of diminishing returns’ in magnetically controlled growing rods. Bone Joint J. 2017;99-B(12):1658–64.
Ahn NU, Nallamshetty L, Ahn UM, et al. Dural ectasia and conventional radiography in the Marfan lumbosacral spine. Skelet Radiol. 2001;30(6):338–45.
Ahn NU, Sponseller PD, Ahn UM, et al. Dural ectasia is associated with back pain in Marfan syndrome. Spine. 2000;25(12):1562–8.
Akbarnia BA, Cheung K, Noordeen H, et al. Next generation of growth-sparing techniques: preliminary clinical results of a magnetically controlled growing rod in 14 patients with early-onset scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2013;38(8):665–70.
Akbarnia BA, Marks DS, Boachie-Adjei O, et al. Dual growing rod technique for the treatment of progressive early-onset scoliosis: a multicenter study. Spine. 2005;30(17 Suppl):S46–57.
Akbarnia BA, Pawelek JB, Cheung KM, et al. Traditional growing rods versus magnetically controlled growing rods for the surgical treatment of early-onset scoliosis: a case-matched 2-year study. Spine Deform. 2014;2(6):493–7.
Akcali O, Alici E, Kosay C. Apical instrumentation alters the rotational correction in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Eur Spine J. 2003;12(2):124–9.
Albanese S. Idiopathic scoliosis: etiology and evaluation; natural history and nonsurgical management. In: Richards BS, editor. Orthopaedic knowledge update--pediatrics. Rosemont: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons; 1996. p. 97.
Albert MC, LaFleur BC. Hybrid fixation with sublaminar polyester bands in the treatment of neuromuscular scoliosis: a comparative analysis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2015;35(2):172–7.
Alexander MA, Season EH. Idiopathic scoliosis: an electromyographic study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1978;59(7):314–5.
Alman BA, Kim HK. Pelvic obliquity after fusion of the spine in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1999;81(5):821–4.
Almansour H, Pepke W, Bruckner T, et al. Three-dimensional analysis of initial brace correction in the setting of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Clin Med. 2019;8(11):1804.
Altiok H, Finlayson C, Hassani S, et al. Kyphectomy in children with myelomeningocele. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2011;469(5):1272–8.
Anand N, Idio FG Jr, Remer S, et al. The effects of perioperative blood salvage and autologous blood donation on transfusion requirements in scoliosis surgery. J Spinal Disord. 1998;11(6):532–4.
Anciaux M, Lenaert A, Van Beneden ML, et al. Transcutaneous electrical stimulation (TCES) for the treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: preliminary results. Acta Orthop Belg. 1991;57(4):399–405.
Anderson AL, McIff TE, Asher MA, et al. The effect of posterior thoracic spine anatomical structures on motion segment flexion stiffness. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(5):441–6.
Ando K, Imagama S, Ito Z, et al. Cervical myelopathy caused by bilateral C1-2 dumbbell ganglioneuromas and C2-3 and C3-4 neurofibromas associated with neurofibromatosis type 1. J Orthop Sci. 2014;19(4):676–81.
Apel DM, Marrero G, King J, et al. Avoiding paraplegia during anterior spinal surgery. The role of somatosensory evoked potential monitoring with temporary occlusion of segmental spinal arteries. Spine. 1991;16(8 Suppl):S365–70.
Aprin H, Bowen JR, MacEwen GD, et al. Spine fusion in patients with spinal muscular atrophy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1982;64(8):1179–87.
Arms DM, Smith JT, Osteyee J, et al. Postoperative epidural analgesia for pediatric spine surgery. Orthopedics. 1998;21(5):539–44.
Aronsson DD, Stokes IA, Ronchetti PJ, et al. Comparison of curve shape between children with cerebral palsy, Friedreich's ataxia, and adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1994;36(5):412–8.
Arun R, Srinivas S, Mehdian SM. Scoliosis in Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy: a changing trend in surgical management: a historical surgical outcome study comparing sublaminar, hybrid and pedicle screw instrumentation systems. Eur Spine J. 2010;19(3):376–83.
Asazuma T, Hashimoto T, Masuoka K, et al. Acute thoracic myelopathy after a traumatic episode in a patient with neurofibromatosis associated with sharply angular scoliosis: a case report. J Orthop Sci. 2003;8(5):721–4.
Asher M, Green P, Orrick J. A six-year report: spinal deformity screening in Kansas school children. J Kans Med Soc. 1980;81(12):568–71.
Asher MA, Burton DC. Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: natural history and long term treatment effects. Scoliosis. 2006;1(1):2.
Asher MA, Lai SM, Burton DC. Analysis of instrumentation/fusion survivorship without reoperation after primary posterior multiple anchor instrumentation and arthrodesis for idiopathic scoliosis. Spine J. 2010;10(1):5–15.
Asher MA, Strippgen WE, Heinig CF, et al. Isola spinal implant system. Semin Spine Surg. 1992;(4):175.
Aslan C, Olgun ZD, Ertas ES, et al. Psychological profile of children who require repetitive surgical procedures for early onset scoliosis: is a poorer quality of life the cost of a straighter spine? Spine Deform. 2017;5(5):334–41.
Auerbach JD, Lenke LG, Bridwell KH, et al. Major complications and comparison between 3-column osteotomy techniques in 105 consecutive spinal deformity procedures. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(14):1198–210.
Aulisa AG, Guzzanti V, Falciglia F, et al. Lyon bracing in adolescent females with thoracic idiopathic scoliosis: a prospective study based on SRS and SOSORT criteria. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2015;16:316.
Aurori BF, Weierman RJ, Lowell HA, et al. Pseudarthrosis after spinal fusion for scoliosis. A comparison of autogeneic and allogeneic bone grafts. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1985;(199):153–8.
Bachabi M, McClung A, Pawelek JB, et al. Idiopathic early-onset scoliosis: growing rods versus vertically expandable prosthetic titanium ribs at 5-year follow-up. J Pediatr Orthop. 2020;40(3):142–8.
Bagnall K, Raso VJ, Moreau M, et al. The effects of melatonin therapy on the development of scoliosis after pinealectomy in the chicken. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1999;81(2):191–9.
Bagnall KM, Beuerlein M, Johnson P, et al. Pineal transplantation after pinealectomy in young chickens has no effect on the development of scoliosis. Spine. 2001;26(9):1022–7.
Bai J, Chen K, Wei Q, et al. Selecting the LSTV as the lower instrumented vertebra in the treatment of Lenke types 1A and 2A adolescent idiopathic scoliosis-a minimal 3-year follow-up. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2017;43(7):E390–8.
Banta JV. Combined anterior and posterior fusion for spinal deformity in myelomeningocele. Spine. 1990;15(9):946–52.
Banta JV, Park SM. Improvement in pulmonary function in patients having combined anterior and posterior spine fusion for myelomeningocele scoliosis. Spine. 1983;8(7):765–70.
Barr SJ, Schuette AM, Emans JB. Lumbar pedicle screws versus hooks. Results in double major curves in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1997;22(12):1369–79.
Barrack RL, Wyatt MP, Whitecloud TS 3rd, et al. Vibratory hypersensitivity in idiopathic scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 1988;8(4):389–95.
Bartley CE, Yaszay B, Bastrom TP, et al. Perioperative and delayed Major complications following surgical treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2017;99(14):1206–12.
Bashiardes S, Veile R, Allen M, et al. SNTG1, the gene encoding gamma1-syntrophin: a candidate gene for idiopathic scoliosis. Hum Genet. 2004;115(1):81–9.
Bashiardes S, Veile R, Wise CA, et al. Positional cloning strategies for idiopathic scoliosis. Stud Health Technol Inform. 2002;91:86–9.
Basu PS, Elsebaie H, Noordeen MH. Congenital spinal deformity: a comprehensive assessment at presentation. Spine. 2002;27(20):2255–9.
Basu S, Tikoo A. Posterior hemivertebrectomy and short segment fixation-long term results. Childs Nerv Syst. 2017;33(2):321–8.
Beals RK, Robbins JR, Rolfe B. Anomalies associated with vertebral malformations. Spine. 1993;18(10):1329–32.
Belmont PJ Jr, Klemme WR, Robinson M, et al. Accuracy of thoracic pedicle screws in patients with and without coronal plane spinal deformities. Spine. 2002;27(14):1558–66.
Belmont PJ Jr, Kuklo TR, Taylor KF, et al. Intraspinal anomalies associated with isolated congenital hemivertebra: the role of routine magnetic resonance imaging. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004;86-A(8):1704–10.
Berg AO. Screening for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a report from the United States preventive services task force. J Am Board Fam Pract. 1993;6(5):497–501.
Bergofsky EH, Turino GM, Fishman AP. Cardio-respiratory failure in kypho-scoliosis. Medicine. 1959;36:456.
Bernard JM, Pereon Y, Fayet G, et al. Effects of isoflurane and desflurane on neurogenic motor- and somatosensory-evoked potential monitoring for scoliosis surgery. Anesthesiology. 1996;85(5):1013–9.
Berned Muller E, Nordwall A, von Wendt L. The influence of scoliosis brace treatment on function in children with myelomeningocele. Acta Paediatr. 1992;81:925.
Bertrand SL, Drvaric DM, Lange N, et al. Electrical stimulation for idiopathic scoliosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1992;(276):176–81.
Bess S, Akbarnia BA, Thompson GH, et al. Complications of growing-rod treatment for early-onset scoliosis: analysis of one hundred and forty patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2010;92(15):2533–43.
Bettany-Saltikov J, Parent E, Romano M, et al. Physiotherapeutic scoliosis-specific exercises for adolescents with idiopathic scoliosis. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med. 2014;50(1):111–21.
Betz RR, Clements DH, et al. Anterior instrumentation for thoracic idiopathic scoliosis. Semin Spine Surg. 1997;9:141.
Beuerlein M, Wilson J, Moreau M, et al. The critical stage of pinealectomy surgery after which scoliosis is produced in young chickens. Spine. 2001;26(3):237–40.
Bharucha NJ, Lonner BS, Auerbach JD, et al. Low-density versus high-density thoracic pedicle screw constructs in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: do more screws lead to a better outcome? Spine J. 2013;13(4):375–81.
Birch JG, Herring JA. Spinal deformity in Marfan syndrome. J Pediatr Orthop. 1987;7(5):546–52.
Bitan F, Rigault P, Houfani B, et al. Scoliosis and congenital heart diseases in children. Apropos of 44 cases. Rev Chir Orthop Reparatrice Appar Mot. 1991;77(3):179–88.
Bitterman AD, Sponseller PD. Marfan syndrome: a clinical update. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2017;25(9):603–9.
Blanco JS, Sears CJ. Allograft bone use during instrumentation and fusion in the treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1997;22(12):1338–42.
Boachie-Adjei O, Lonstein JE, Winter RB, et al. Management of neuromuscular spinal deformities with Luque segmental instrumentation. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1989;71(4):548–62.
Boemers TM, Soorani-Lunsing IJ, de Jong TP, et al. Urological problems after surgical treatment of scoliosis in children with myelomeningocele. J Urol. 1996;155(3):1066–9.
Bohl DD, Telles CJ, Golinvaux NS, et al. Effectiveness of Providence nighttime bracing in patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Orthopedics. 2014;37(12):e1085–90.
Bohtz C, Meyer-Heim A, Min K. Changes in health-related quality of life after spinal fusion and scoliosis correction in patients with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 2011;31(6):668–73.
Bollini G, Docquier PL, Viehweger E, et al. Lumbar hemivertebra resection. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2006;88(5):1043–52.
Borkhuu B, Borowski A, Shah SA, et al. Antibiotic-loaded allograft decreases the rate of acute deep wound infection after spinal fusion in cerebral palsy. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2008;33(21):2300–4.
Borkhuu B, Nagaraju D, Miller F, et al. Prevalence and risk factors in postoperative pancreatitis after spine fusion in patients with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 2009;29(3):256–62.
Bosch B, Heimkes B, Stotz S. Course and prognosis of congenital scoliosis. Z Orthop Ihre Grenzgeb. 1994;132(5):363–70.
Boylan KB, Cornblath DR, Glass JD, et al. Autosomal dominant distal spinal muscular atrophy in four generations. Neurology. 1995;45(4):699–704.
Bradford DS. Anterior vascular pedicle bone grafting for the treatment of kyphosis. Spine. 1980;5(4):318–23.
Bradford DS, Boachie-Adjei O. One-stage anterior and posterior hemivertebral resection and arthrodesis for congenital scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1990;72(4):536–40.
Bradford DS, Daher YH. Vascularised rib grafts for stabilisation of kyphosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1986;68(3):357–61.
Bradford DS, Heithoff KB, Cohen M. Intraspinal abnormalities and congenital spine deformities: a radiographic and MRI study. J Pediatr Orthop. 1991;11(1):36–41.
Bradford DS, Tribus CB. Vertebral column resection for the treatment of rigid coronal decompensation. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1997;22(14):1590–9.
Branthwaite MA. Cardiorespiratory consequences of unfused idiopathic scoliosis. Br J Dis Chest. 1986;80(4):360–9.
Braun JT, Ogilvie JW, Akyuz E, et al. Fusionless scoliosis correction using a shape memory alloy staple in the anterior thoracic spine of the immature goat. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2004;29(18):1980–9.
Bridwell KH, Baldus C, Iffrig TM, et al. Process measures and patient/parent evaluation of surgical management of spinal deformities in patients with progressive flaccid neuromuscular scoliosis (Duchenne's muscular dystrophy and spinal muscular atrophy). Spine. 1999;24(13):1300–9.
Bridwell KH, McAllister JW, Betz RR, et al. Coronal decompensation produced by Cotrel-Dubousset “derotation” maneuver for idiopathic right thoracic scoliosis. Spine. 1991;16(7):769–77.
Brodner W, Krepler P, Nicolakis M, et al. Melatonin and adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2000;82(3):399–403.
Brown JC, Zeller JL, Swank SM, et al. Surgical and functional results of spine fusion in spinal muscular atrophy. Spine. 1989;14(7):763–70.
Brzustowicz LM, Lehner T, Castilla LH, et al. Genetic mapping of chronic childhood-onset spinal muscular atrophy to chromosome 5q11.2-13.3. Nature. 1990;344(6266):540–1.
Buckner JMH. A longitudinal study of adolescent growth. London: Springer; 1990.
Buckwalter JA, Yaszay B, Ilgenfritz RM, et al. Analysis of intraoperative neuromonitoring events during spinal corrective surgery for idiopathic scoliosis. Spine Deform. 2013;1(6):434–8.
Budd HR, Stokes OM, Meakin J, et al. Safety and compatibility of magnetic-controlled growing rods and magnetic resonance imaging. Eur Spine J. 2016;25(2):578–82.
Bunnell WP. An objective criterion for scoliosis screening. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1984;66(9):1381–7.
Bunnell WP. The natural history of idiopathic scoliosis before skeletal maturity. Spine. 1986;11(8):773–6.
Bunnell WP. Outcome of spinal screening. Spine. 1993;18(12):1572–80.
Bunnell WP, MacEwen GD, Jayakumar S. The use of plastic jackets in the non-operative treatment of idiopathic scoliosis. Preliminary report. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1980;62(1):31–8.
Burton DC, Asher MA, Lai SM. Scoliosis correction maintenance in skeletally immature patients with idiopathic scoliosis. Is anterior fusion really necessary? Spine. 2000;25(1):61–8.
Burton DC, Asher MA, Lai SM. Patient-based outcomes analysis of patients with single torsion thoracolumbar-lumbar scoliosis treated with anterior or posterior instrumentation: an average 5- to 9-year follow-up study. Spine. 2002;27(21):2363–7.
Burton DC, Carlson BB, Place HM, et al. Results of the Scoliosis Research Society morbidity and mortality database 2009-2012: a report from the morbidity and mortality committee. Spine Deform. 2016;4(5):338–43.
Bush CH, Kalen V. Three-dimensional computed tomography in the assessment of congenital scoliosis. Skelet Radiol. 1999;28(11):632–7.
Bushby K, Finkel R, Birnkrant DJ, et al. Diagnosis and management of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, part 2: implementation of multidisciplinary care. Lancet Neurol. 2010;9(2):177–89.
Byers RK, Banker BQ. Infantile muscular atrophy: an eleven year experience. Trans Am Neurol Assoc. 1960;85:10–4.
Byers RK, Banker BQ. Infantile muscular atrophy. Arch Neurol. 1961;5:140–64.
Byrd JA 3rd. Current theories on the etiology of idiopathic scoliosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1988;(229):114–9.
Cahill PJ, Marvil S, Cuddihy L, et al. Autofusion in the immature spine treated with growing rods. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2010;35(22):E1199–203.
Cai S, Zhang J, Shen J, et al. Posterior correction without rib-head resection for patients with Neurofibromatosis type 1, dystrophic scoliosis, and rib-head protrusion into the Spinal Canal. Clin Spine Surg. 2017;30(1):32–7.
Callahan BC, Georgopoulos G, Eilert RE. Hemivertebral excision for congenital scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 1997;17(1):96–9.
Calvert PT, Edgar MA, Webb PJ. Scoliosis in neurofibromatosis. The natural history with and without operation. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1989;71(2):246–51.
Cambridge W, Drennan JC. Scoliosis associated with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J Pediatr Orthop. 1987;7(4):436–40.
Campbell RM Jr, Hell-Vocke AK. Growth of the thoracic spine in congenital scoliosis after expansion thoracoplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003;85-A(3):409–20.
Campbell RM Jr, Smith MD, Hell-Vocke AK. Expansion thoracoplasty: the surgical technique of opening-wedge thoracostomy. Surgical technique. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004;86-A(Suppl 1):51–64.
Campbell RM Jr, Smith MD, Mayes TC, et al. The characteristics of thoracic insufficiency syndrome associated with fused ribs and congenital scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003;85-A(3):399–408.
Canavese F, Charles YP, Samba A, et al. Safety and efficacy of sublaminar bands and Ponte osteotomies in rigid deformity: preliminary results in a prospective series of 20 neuromuscular scoliosis patients. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2017;26(3):233–9.
Carman DL, Browne RH, Birch JG. Measurement of scoliosis and kyphosis radiographs. Intraobserver and interobserver variation. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1990;72(3):328–33.
Carreon LY, Puno RM, Lenke LG, et al. Non-neurologic complications following surgery for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2007;89(11):2427–32.
Carstens C, Koch H, Brocai DR, et al. Development of pathological lumbar kyphosis in myelomeningocele. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1996;78(6):945–50.
Carstens C, Paul K, Niethard FU, et al. Effect of scoliosis surgery on pulmonary function in patients with myelomeningocele. J Pediatr Orthop. 1991;11(4):459–64.
Cassidy C, Craig CL, Perry A, et al. A reassessment of spinal stabilization in severe cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 1994;14(6):731–9.
Chalkiadis GA, Branch KG. Cardiac arrest after isoflurane anaesthesia in a patient with Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy. Anaesthesia. 1990;45(1):22–5.
Chan A, Parent E, Narvacan K, et al. Intraoperative image guidance compared with free-hand methods in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis posterior spinal surgery: a systematic review on screw-related complications and breach rates. Spine J. 2017;17(9):1215–29.
Chan V, Fong GC, Luk KD, et al. A genetic locus for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis linked to chromosome 19p13.3. Am J Hum Genet. 2002;71(2):401–6.
Chandran S, McCarthy J, Noonan K, et al. Early treatment of scoliosis with growing rods in children with severe spinal muscular atrophy: a preliminary report. J Pediatr Orthop. 2011;31(4):450–4.
Chang DG, Kim JH, Ha KY, et al. Posterior hemivertebra resection and short segment fusion with pedicle screw fixation for congenital scoliosis in children younger than 10 years: greater than 7-year follow-up. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2015;40(8):E484–91.
Charles YP, Canavese F, Dimeglio A. Curve progression risk in a mixed series of braced and nonbraced patients with idiopathic scoliosis related to skeletal maturity assessment on the olecranon. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2017;26(3):240–4.
Charry O, Koop S, Winter R, et al. Syringomyelia and scoliosis: a review of twenty-five pediatric patients. J Pediatr Orthop. 1994;14(3):309–17.
Cheliout-Heraut F, Daunois O, Pouliquen JC, et al. Value of somatosensory evoked potentials in spinal surgery monitoring in children and adolescents: 110 cases. Neurophysiol Clin. 1993;23(2–3):163–78.
Cheliout-Heraut F, Mariambourg G, Fahed M, et al. Contribution of somatosensory evoked potentials in the surveillance of the spinal cord during spinal surgery. Rev Chir Orthop Reparatrice Appar Mot. 1991;77(5):344–52.
Chen J, Yang C, Ran B, et al. Correction of Lenke 5 adolescent idiopathic scoliosis using pedicle screw instrumentation: does implant density influence the correction? Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2013;38(15):E946–51.
Chen ZY, Wong HK, Chan YH. Variability of somatosensory evoked potential monitoring during scoliosis surgery. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2004;17(6):470–6.
Cheng JC, Guo X, Sher AH. Persistent osteopenia in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. A longitudinal follow up study. Spine. 1999;24(12):1218–22.
Cheung KM, Cheung JP, Samartzis D, et al. Magnetically controlled growing rods for severe spinal curvature in young children: a prospective case series. Lancet. 2012;379(9830):1967–74.
Cheung KM, Lu DS, Poon AM, et al. Effect of melatonin suppression on scoliosis development in chickens by either constant light or surgical pinealectomy. Spine. 2003;28(17):1941–4.
Cho SK, Kim YJ, Lenke LG. Proximal junctional kyphosis following spinal deformity surgery in the Pediatric patient. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2015;23(7):408–14.
Choudhry DK, Brenn BR, Sacks K, et al. Evaluation of gabapentin and clonidine use in children following spinal fusion surgery for idiopathic scoliosis: a retrospective review. J Pediatr Orthop. 2019;39(9):e687–93.
Christodoulou AG, Ploumis A, Terzidis IP, et al. Spleen rupture after surgery in Marfan syndrome scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2004;24(5):537–40.
Christofersen MR, Brooks AL. Excision and wire fixation of rigid myelomeningocele kyphosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 1985;5(6):691–6.
Chugh S, Marks DS, Mangham DC, et al. Autologous bone grafting in staged scoliosis surgery. The patient as bone bank. Spine. 1998;23(16):1793–5.
Clark CE, Shufflebarger HL. Late-developing infection in instrumented idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1999;24(18):1909–12.
Clements DH, Betz RR, Newton PO, et al. Correlation of scoliosis curve correction with the number and type of fixation anchors. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(20):2147–50.
Cobetto N, Aubin CE, Clin J, et al. Braces optimized with computer-assisted design and simulations are lighter, more comfortable, and more efficient than plaster-cast braces for the treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine Deform. 2014;2(4):276–84.
Coe JD, Arlet V, Donaldson W, et al. Complications in spinal fusion for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis in the new millennium. A report of the Scoliosis Research Society morbidity and mortality committee. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2006;31(3):345–9.
Colbert AP, Craig C. Scoliosis management in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: prospective study of modified Jewett hyperextension brace. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1987;68(5 Pt 1):302–4.
Cole JW, Murray DJ, Snider RJ, et al. Aprotinin reduces blood loss during spinal surgery in children. Spine. 2003;28(21):2482–5.
Comstock SA, Cook PC, Leahey JL, et al. Posterior kyphectomy for myelomeningocele with anterior placement of fixation: a retrospective review. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2011;469(5):1265–71.
Copley LA, Richards BS, Safavi FZ, et al. Hemodilution as a method to reduce transfusion requirements in adolescent spine fusion surgery. Spine. 1999;24(3):219–22; discussion 223–214.
Cordover AM, Betz RR, Clements DH, et al. Natural history of adolescent thoracolumbar and lumbar idiopathic scoliosis into adulthood. J Spinal Disord. 1997;10(3):193–6.
Corona J, Matsumoto H, Roye DP, et al. Measuring quality of life in children with early onset scoliosis: development and initial validation of the early onset scoliosis questionnaire. J Pediatr Orthop. 2011;31(2):180–5.
Cote P, Cassidy JD. Re: a study of the diagnostic accuracy and reliability of the scoliometer and Adam's forward bend test (spine. 1999;23:796–802). Spine. 1999;24(22):2411–2.
Cowell HR, Hall JN, MacEwen GD. Genetic aspects of idiopathic scoliosis. A Nicholas Andry award essay, 1970. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1972;86:121–31.
Cowell HR, MacEwen GD, Hubben C. Incidence of abnormalities of the kidney and ureter in congenital scoliosis. Birth Defects Orig Artic Ser. 1974;10(4):142–5.
Crawford AH. Pitfalls of spinal deformities associated with neurofibromatosis in children. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1989;(245):29–42.
Crawford AH. Neurofibromatosis. In: Weinstein SL, editor. The pediatric spine: principles and practice. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p. 619.
Crawford CH 3rd, Lenke LG. Growth modulation by means of anterior tethering resulting in progressive correction of juvenile idiopathic scoliosis: a case report. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2010;92(1):202–9.
Cunningham BW, Orbegoso CM, Dmitriev AE, et al. The effect of titanium particulate on development and maintenance of a posterolateral spinal arthrodesis: an in vivo rabbit model. Spine. 2002;27(18):1971–81.
D’Amato CR, Griggs S, McCoy B. Nighttime bracing with the Providence brace in adolescent girls with idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2001;26(18):2006–12.
Dalal A, Upasani VV, Bastrom TP, et al. Apical vertebral rotation in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: comparison of uniplanar and polyaxial pedicle screws. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2011;24(4):251–7.
Danielsson AJ. Natural history of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a tool for guidance in decision of surgery of curves above 50 degrees. J Child Orthop. 2013;7(1):37–41.
Daruwalla JS, Balasubramaniam P, Chay SO, et al. Idiopathic scoliosis. Prevalence and ethnic distribution in Singapore schoolchildren. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1985;67(2):182–4.
Daubs MD. Sagittal alignment changes and proximal junctional kyphosis in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine J. 2016;16(6):784–5.
Davis CM, Grant CA, Pearcy MJ, et al. Is there asymmetry between the concave and convex pedicles in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis? A CT investigation. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2017;475(3):884–93.
Day GA, Upadhyay SS, Ho EK, et al. Pulmonary functions in congenital scoliosis. Spine. 1994;19(9):1027–31.
De Giorgi S, Piazzolla A, Tafuri S, et al. Cheneau brace for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: long-term results. Can it prevent surgery? Eur Spine J. 2013;22(Suppl 6):S815–22.
de Kleuver M, van Jonbergen JP, Langeloo DD. Asymptomatic massive dural ectasia associated with neurofibromatosis type 1 threatening spinal column support: treatment by anterior vascularized fibula graft. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2004;17(6):539–42.
De la Garza Ramos R, Goodwin CR, Abu-Bonsrah N, et al. Patient and operative factors associated with complications following adolescent idiopathic scoliosis surgery: an analysis of 36, 335 patients from the Nationwide inpatient sample. J Neurosurg Pediatr. 2016;25(6):730–6.
de Mendonca RG, Sawyer JR, Kelly DM. Complications after surgical treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Orthop Clin North Am. 2016;47(2):395–403.
Dede O, Motoyama EK, Yang CI, et al. Pulmonary and radiographic outcomes of VEPTR (vertical expandable prosthetic titanium rib) treatment in early-onset scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2014;96(15):1295–302.
Delikaris A, Wang X, Boyer L, et al. Implant density at the apex is more important than overall implant density for 3D correction in thoracic adolescent idiopathic scoliosis using rod Derotation and En bloc vertebral Derotation technique. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2018;43(11):E639–47.
Demetracopoulos CA, Sponseller PD. Spinal deformities in Marfan syndrome. Orthop Clin North Am. 2007;38(4):563–72, vii.
Deviren V, Berven S, Smith JA, et al. Excision of hemivertebrae in the management of congenital scoliosis involving the thoracic and thoracolumbar spine. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2001;83(4):496–500.
Dhawale AA, Shah SA, Sponseller PD, et al. Are antifibrinolytics helpful in decreasing blood loss and transfusions during spinal fusion surgery in children with cerebral palsy scoliosis? Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(9):E549–55.
Di Pauli von Treuheim T, Li DT, Mikhail C, et al. Reliable skeletal maturity assessment for an AIS patient cohort: external validation of the proximal humerus ossification system (PHOS) and relevant learning methodology. Spine Deform. 2020;8(4):613–20.
Di Silvestre M, Greggi T, Giacomini S, et al. Surgical treatment for scoliosis in Marfan syndrome. Spine. 2005;30(20):E597–604.
Di Silvestre M, Parisini P, Lolli F, et al. Complications of thoracic pedicle screws in scoliosis treatment. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2007;32(15):1655–61.
Diab M, Landman Z, Lubicky J, et al. Use and outcome of MRI in the surgical treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2011;36(8):667–71.
Dias MS, Li V, Landi M, et al. The embryogenesis of congenital vertebral dislocation: early embryonic buckling? Pediatr Neurosurg. 1998;29(6):281–9.
Dias RC, Miller F, Dabney K, et al. Surgical correction of spinal deformity using a unit rod in children with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 1996;16(6):734–40.
DiCindio S, Theroux M, Shah S, et al. Multimodality monitoring of transcranial electric motor and somatosensory-evoked potentials during surgical correction of spinal deformity in patients with cerebral palsy and other neuromuscular disorders. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2003;28(16):1851–5; discussion 1855–1856.
DiFazio RL, Miller PE, Vessey JA, et al. Health-related quality of life and care giver burden following spinal fusion in children with cerebral palsy. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2017;42(12):E733–9.
Dimeglio A, Bonnel F. Le rachis en croissance. Paris: Springer; 1990.
Djurasovic M, Glassman SD, Sucato DJ, et al. Improvement in SRS22R pain scores after surgery for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2016;16(10):S343–4.
Do T, Fras C, Burke S, et al. Clinical value of routine preoperative magnetic resonance imaging in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. A prospective study of three hundred and twenty-seven patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2001;83-A(4):577–9.
Doany ME, Olgun ZD, Kinikli GI, et al. Health-related quality of life in early-onset scoliosis patients treated surgically: EOSQ scores in traditional growing rod versus magnetically controlled growing rods. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2018;43(2):148–53.
Dodd CA, Fergusson CM, Freedman L, et al. Allograft versus autograft bone in scoliosis surgery. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1988;70(3):431–4.
Doers T, Walker JL, van den Brink K, et al. The progression of untreated lumbar kyphosis and the compensatory thoracic lordosis in myelomeningocele. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1997;39(5):326–30.
Dohin B, Dubousset JF. Prevention of the crankshaft phenomenon with anterior spinal epiphysiodesis in surgical treatment of severe scoliosis of the younger patient. Eur Spine J. 1994;3(3):165–8.
Dong Y, Weng X, Zhao H, et al. Lenke 5C curves in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: anterior vs posterior selective fusion. Neurosurgery. 2016;78(3):324–31.
Dormans JP, Templeton JJ, Edmonds C, et al. Intraoperative anaphylaxis due to exposure to latex (natural rubber) in children. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1994;76(11):1688–91.
Drvaric DM, Roberts JM, Burke SW, et al. Gastroesophageal evaluation in totally involved cerebral palsy patients. J Pediatr Orthop. 1987;7(2):187–90.
Drvaric DM, Schmitt EW, Nakano JM. The Grice extra-articular subtalar arthrodesis in the treatment of spastic hindfoot valgus deformity. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1989;31(5):665–9.
Dubory A, Miladi L, Ilharreborde B, et al. Cobb-1 versus cobb-to-cobb anterior fusion for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis Lenke 5C curves: a radiological comparative study. Eur Spine J. 2017;26(6):1711–20.
Dubousset J. Congenital kyphosis and lordosis. In: Weinstein SL, editor. The pediatric spine: principles and practice. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p. 245.
Dubousset J, Herring JA, Shufflebarger H. The crankshaft phenomenon. J Pediatr Orthop. 1989;9(5):541–50.
Dubousset J, Shufflebarger H, Wenger DR. Late infection with CD instrumentation. Orthop Trans. 1994;(18):121.
Duport G, Gayet E, Pries P, et al. Spinal deformities and wheelchair seating in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: twenty years of research and clinical experience. Semin Neurol. 1995;15(1):29–37.
Durham JW, Moskowitz A, Whitney J. Surface electrical stimulation versus brace in treatment of idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1990;15(9):888–92.
Dwyer AF, Newton NC, Sherwood AA. An anterior approach to scoliosis. A preliminary report. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1969;62:192–202.
Eckford SD, Westgate J. Solitary crossed renal ectopia associated with unicornuate uterus, imperforate anus and congenital scoliosis. J Urol. 1996;156(1):221.
Eckstein HB, Vora RM. Spinal osteotomy for severe kyphosis in children with myelomeningocele. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1972;54(2):328–33.
Edvardsen P. Physeo-epiphyseal injuries of lower extremities in myelomeningocele. Acta Orthop Scand. 1972;43(6):550–7.
Ekatodramis G, Min K, Cathrein P, et al. Use of a double epidural catheter provides effective postoperative analgesia after spine deformity surgery. Can J Anaesth. 2002;49(2):173–7.
Eldeeb H, Boubekri N, Asfour S, et al. Design of thoracolumbosacral orthosis (TLSO) braces using CT/MR. J Comput Assist Tomogr. 2001;25(6):963–70.
Emans JB, Caubet JF, Ordonez CL, et al. The treatment of spine and chest wall deformities with fused ribs by expansion thoracostomy and insertion of vertical expandable prosthetic titanium rib: growth of thoracic spine and improvement of lung volumes. Spine. 2005;30(17 Suppl):S58–68.
Enercan M, Kahraman S, Cobanoglu M, et al. Selective thoracic fusion provides similar health-related quality of life but can cause more lumbar disc and facet joint degeneration: a comparison of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis patients with Normal population 10 years after surgery. Spine Deform. 2015;3(5):469–75.
Erol B, Tracy MR, Dormans JP, et al. Congenital scoliosis and vertebral malformations: characterization of segmental defects for genetic analysis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2004;24(6):674–82.
Evans GA, Drennan JC, Russman BS. Functional classification and orthopaedic management of spinal muscular atrophy. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1981;63B(4):516–22.
Evans SC, Edgar MA, Hall-Craggs MA, et al. MRI of 'idiopathic’ juvenile scoliosis. A prospective study. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1996;78(2):314–7.
Fabry G. Allograft versus autograft bone in idiopathic scoliosis surgery: a multivariate statistical analysis. J Pediatr Orthop. 1991;11(4):465–8.
Facanha-Filho FA, Winter RB, Lonstein JE, et al. Measurement accuracy in congenital scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2001;83-A(1):42–5.
Faciszewski T, Winter RB, Lonstein JE, et al. Segmental spinal dysgenesis. A disorder different from spinal agenesis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995;77(4):530–7.
Fagan AB, Kennaway DJ, Sutherland AD. Total 24-hour melatonin secretion in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. A case-control study. Spine. 1998;23(1):41–6.
Fang MQ, Wang C, Xiang GH, et al. Long-term effects of the Cheneau brace on coronal and sagittal alignment in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Neurosurg Spine. 2015;23(4):505–9.
Farley FA, Song KM, Birch JG, et al. Syringomyelia and scoliosis in children. J Pediatr Orthop. 1995;15(2):187–92.
Fattori R, Nienaber CA, Descovich B, et al. Importance of dural ectasia in phenotypic assessment of Marfan’s syndrome. Lancet. 1999;354(9182):910–3.
Faust MS. Somatic development of adolescent girls. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev. 1977;42(1):1–90.
Federico DJ, Renshaw TS. Results of treatment of idiopathic scoliosis with the Charleston bending orthosis. Spine. 1990;15(9):886–7.
Feldman JM, Roth JV, Bjoraker DG. Maximum blood savings by acute normovolemic hemodilution. Anesth Analg. 1995;80(1):108–13.
Feng B, Qiu G, Shen J, et al. Impact of multimodal intraoperative monitoring during surgery for spine deformity and potential risk factors for neurological monitoring changes. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2012;25(4):E108–14.
Ferrero E, Pesenti S, Blondel B, et al. Role of thoracoscopy for the sagittal correction of hypokyphotic adolescent idiopathic scoliosis patients. Eur Spine J. 2014;23(12):2635–42.
Finkel RS, Chiriboga CA, Vajsar J, et al. Treatment of infantile-onset spinal muscular atrophy with nusinersen: a phase 2, open-label, dose-escalation study. Lancet. 2016;388(10063):3017–26.
Fletcher ND, Andras LM, Lazarus DE, et al. Use of a novel pathway for early discharge was associated with a 48% shorter length of stay after posterior spinal fusion for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2017;37(2):92–7.
Fletcher ND, Glotzbecker MP, Marks M, et al. Development of consensus-based best practice guidelines for postoperative care following posterior spinal fusion for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2017;42(9):E547–54.
Fletcher ND, McClung A, Rathjen KE, et al. Serial casting as a delay tactic in the treatment of moderate-to-severe early-onset scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2012;32(7):664–71.
Floman Y. "Mirror image" congenital scoliosis in siblings. J Spinal Disord. 1991;4(3):366–8.
Floman Y, Liebergall M, Robin GC, et al. Abnormalities of aggregation, thromboxane A2 synthesis, and 14C serotonin release in platelets of patients with idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1983;8(3):236–41.
Florentino-Pineda I, Blakemore LC, Thompson GH, et al. The effect of epsilon-aminocaproic acid on perioperative blood loss in patients with idiopathic scoliosis undergoing posterior spinal fusion: a preliminary prospective study. Spine. 2001;26(10):1147–51.
Florentino-Pineda I, Thompson GH, Poe-Kochert C, et al. The effect of amicar on perioperative blood loss in idiopathic scoliosis: the results of a prospective, randomized double-blind study. Spine. 2004;29(3):233–8.
Flynn JM, Betz RR, O'Brien MF, et al. Radiographic classification of complications of instrumentation in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2010;468(3):665–9.
Flynn JM, Otsuka NY, Emans JB, et al. Segmental spinal dysgenesis: early neurologic deterioration and treatment. J Pediatr Orthop. 1997;17(1):100–4.
Flynn JM, Ramirez N, Emans JB, et al. Is the vertebral expandable prosthetic titanium rib a surgical alternative in patients with spina bifida? Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2011;469(5):1291–6.
Flynn JM, Tomlinson LA, Pawelek J, et al. Growing-rod graduates: lessons learned from ninety-nine patients who completed lengthening. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013;95(19):1745–50.
Ford EG, Jaufmann BA, Kaste SC, et al. Successful staged surgical correction of congenital segmental spinal dysgenesis and complete rotary subluxation of the thoracolumbar spine in an infant. J Pediatr Surg. 1996;31(7):960–4.
Forst J, Forst R, Leithe H, et al. Platelet function deficiency in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Neuromuscul Disord. 1998;8(1):46–9.
Fox HJ, Thomas CH, Thompson AG. Spinal instrumentation for Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy: experience of hypotensive anaesthesia to minimise blood loss. J Pediatr Orthop. 1997;17(6):750–3.
Fratelli N, Rich P, Jeffrey I, et al. Prenatal diagnosis of segmental spinal dysgenesis. Prenat Diagn. 2007;27(10):979–81.
Fricka KB, Mahar AT, Newton PO. Biomechanical analysis of anterior scoliosis instrumentation: differences between single and dual rod systems with and without interbody structural support. Spine. 2002;27(7):702–6.
Fromm B, Carstens C, Niethard FU, et al. Aortography in children with myelomeningocele and lumbar kyphosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1992;74(5):691–4.
Fu TS, Chen LH, Wong CB, et al. Computer-assisted fluoroscopic navigation of pedicle screw insertion: an in vivo feasibility study. Acta Orthop Scand. 2004;75(6):730–5.
Funasaki H, Winter RB, Lonstein JB, et al. Pathophysiology of spinal deformities in neurofibromatosis. An analysis of seventy-one patients who had curves associated with dystrophic changes. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1994;76(5):692–700.
Funk S, Lovejoy S, Mencio G, et al. Rigid instrumentation for neuromuscular scoliosis improves deformity correction without increasing complications. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2016;41(1):46–52.
Furderer S, Eysel P, Hopf C, et al. Sagittal static imbalance in myelomeningocele patients: improvement in sitting ability by partial and total gibbus resection. Eur Spine J. 1999;8(6):451–7.
Furumasu J, Swank SM, Brown JC, et al. Functional activities in spinal muscular atrophy patients after spinal fusion. Spine. 1989;14(7):771–5.
Galasko CS, Delaney C, Morris P. Spinal stabilisation in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1992;74(2):210–4.
Galasko CS, Williamson JB, Delaney CM. Lung function in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Eur Spine J. 1995;4(5):263–7.
Gao X, Gordon D, Zhang D, et al. CHD7 gene polymorphisms are associated with susceptibility to idiopathic scoliosis. Am J Hum Genet. 2007;80(5):957–65.
Garg S, Engelman G, Yoshihara H, et al. The relationship of gross motor functional classification scale level and hip dysplasia on the pattern and progression of scoliosis in children with cerebral palsy. Spine Deform. 2013;1(4):266–71.
Garg S, Hosalkar H, Dormans JP. Quadriplegia in a 10 year-old boy due to multiple cervical neurofibromas. Spine. 2003;28(17):E339–43.
Garg S, Oetgen M, Rathjen K, et al. Kyphectomy improves sitting and skin problems in patients with myelomeningocele. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2011;469(5):1279–85.
Gau YL, Lonstein JE, Winter RB, et al. Luque-Galveston procedure for correction and stabilization of neuromuscular scoliosis and pelvic obliquity: a review of 68 patients. J Spinal Disord. 1991;4(4):399–410.
Gaudiche O, Loose JP, Egu JF, et al. Autotransfusion using cell saver III. Experience with 90 cases of surgery of the spine in childhood and adolescence. Cah Anesthesiol. 1988;36(6):451–7.
Gebhart S, Alton TB, Bompadre V, et al. Do anchor density or pedicle screw density correlate with short-term outcome measures in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis surgery? Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2014;39(2):E104–10.
Geck MJ, Rinella A, Hawthorne D, et al. Comparison of surgical treatment in Lenke 5C adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: anterior dual rod versus posterior pedicle fixation surgery: a comparison of two practices. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(18):1942–51.
Geck MJ, Rinella A, Hawthorne D, et al. Anterior dual rod versus posterior pedicle fixation surgery for the surgical treatment in Lenke 5C adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a Multicenter, matched case analysis of 42 patients. Spine Deform. 2013;1(3):217–22.
Geissele AE, Kransdorf MJ, Geyer CA, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain stem in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1991;16(7):761–3.
Ghandhari H, Tari HV, Ameri E, et al. Vertebral, rib, and intraspinal anomalies in congenital scoliosis: a study on 202 Caucasians. Eur Spine J. 2015;24(7):1510–21.
Gjolaj JP, Sponseller PD, Shah SA, et al. Spinal deformity correction in Marfan syndrome versus adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: learning from the differences. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(18):1558–65.
Glard Y, Launay F, Edgard-Rosa G, et al. Scoliotic curve patterns in patients with Marfan syndrome. J Child Orthop. 2008;2(3):211–6.
Glaser DA, Doan J, Newton PO. Comparison of 3-dimensional spinal reconstruction accuracy: biplanar radiographs with EOS versus computed tomography. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(16):1391–7.
Glassman SD, Sucato DJ, Carreon LY, et al. Does thoracic hypokyphosis matter in Lenke type 1 adolescent idiopathic scoliosis? Spine Deform. 2013;1(1):40–5.
Glassman SD, Zhang YP, Shields CB, et al. Transcranial magnetic motor-evoked potentials in scoliosis surgery. Orthopedics. 1995;18(10):1017–23.
Goldberg CJ, Dowling FE, Fogarty EE, et al. Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis and cerebral asymmetry. An examination of a nonspinal perceptual system. Spine. 1995;20(15):1685–91.
Goldberg CJ, Dowling FE, Hall JE, et al. A statistical comparison between natural history of idiopathic scoliosis and brace treatment in skeletally immature adolescent girls. Spine. 1993;18(7):902–8.
Goldberg CJ, Fogarty EE, Moore DP, et al. Fluctuating asymmetry and vertebral malformation. A study of palmar dermatoglyphics in congenital spinal deformities. Spine. 1997;22(7):775–9.
Goldberg CJ, Gillic I, Connaughton O, et al. Respiratory function and cosmesis at maturity in infantile-onset scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2003;28(20):2397–406.
Gotfryd AO, Avanzi O. Randomized clinical study on surgical techniques with different pedicle screw densities in the treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis types Lenke 1A and 1B. Spine Deform. 2013;1(4):272–9.
Goultidis TT, Papavasiliou KA, Petropoulos AS, et al. Higher levels of melatonin in early stages of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: toward a new scenario. J Pediatr Orthop. 2014;34(8):768–73.
Gozdzialska A, Jaskiewicz J, Knapik-Czajka M, et al. Association of Calcium and Phosphate Balance, vitamin D, PTH, and calcitonin in patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2016;41(8):693–7.
Granata C, Merlini L, Cervellati S, et al. Long-term results of spine surgery in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Neuromuscul Disord. 1996;6(1):61–8.
Granata C, Merlini L, Magni E, et al. Spinal muscular atrophy: natural history and orthopaedic treatment of scoliosis. Spine. 1989;14(7):760–2.
Grassi V, Tantucci C. Respiratory prognosis in chest wall diseases. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis. 1993;48(2):183–7.
Grogan DP, Kalen V, Ross TI, et al. Use of allograft bone for posterior spinal fusion in idiopathic scoliosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1999;369:273–8.
Guerrero G, Saieh C, Dockendorf I, et al. Genitourinary anomalies in children with congenital scoliosis. Rev Chil Pediatr. 1989;60(5):281–3.
Guille JT, Forlin E, Bowen JR. Congenital kyphosis. Orthop Rev. 1993;22(2):235–9.
Gupta P, Lenke LG, Bridwell KH. Incidence of neural axis abnormalities in infantile and juvenile patients with spinal deformity. Is a magnetic resonance image screening necessary? Spine. 1998;23(2):206–10.
Gurnett CA, Alaee F, Bowcock A, et al. Genetic linkage localizes an adolescent idiopathic scoliosis and pectus excavatum gene to chromosome 18 q. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(2):E94–100.
Gutman G, Benoit M, Joncas J, et al. The effectiveness of the SpineCor brace for the conservative treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Comparison with the Boston brace. Spine J. 2016;16(5):626–31.
Haberland N, Ebmeier K, Grunewald JP, et al. Incorporation of intraoperative computerized tomography in a newly developed spinal navigation technique. Comput Aided Surg. 2000;5(1):18–27.
Habermann CR, Weiss F, Schoder V, et al. MR evaluation of dural ectasia in Marfan syndrome: reassessment of the established criteria in children, adolescents, and young adults. Radiology. 2005;234(2):535–41.
Hadley-Miller N, Mims B, Milewicz DM. The potential role of the elastic fiber system in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1994;76(8):1193–206.
Hagglund G, Karlberg J, Willner S. Growth in girls with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1992;17(1):108–11.
Hahn F, Hauser D, Espinosa N, et al. Scoliosis correction with pedicle screws in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Eur Spine J. 2008;17(2):255–61.
Hall JE, Levine CR, Sudhir KG. Intraoperative awakening to monitor spinal cord function during Harrington instrumentation and spine fusion. Description of procedure and report of three cases. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1978;60(4):533–6.
Hall JE, Poitras B. The management of kyphosis in patients with myelomeningocele. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1977;(128):33–40.
Hamill CL, Bridwell KH, Lenke LG, et al. Posterior arthrodesis in the skeletally immature patient. Assessing the risk for crankshaft: is an open triradiate cartilage the answer? Spine. 1997;22(12):1343–51.
Hamill CL, Lenke LG, Bridwell KH, et al. The use of pedicle screw fixation to improve correction in the lumbar spine of patients with idiopathic scoliosis. Is it warranted? Spine. 1996;21(10):1241–9.
Hammett TC, Boreham B, Quraishi NA, et al. Intraoperative spinal cord monitoring during the surgical correction of scoliosis due to cerebral palsy and other neuromuscular disorders. Eur Spine J. 2013;22(Suppl 1):S38–41.
Hanna BG, Pill SG, Drummond DS. Irreducible thoracic spondyloptosis in a child with neurofibromatosis: a rationale for treatment. Spine. 2002;27(14):E342–7.
Harper CM, Ambler G, Edge G. The prognostic value of pre-operative predicted forced vital capacity in corrective spinal surgery for Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy. Anaesthesia. 2004;59(12):1160–2.
Harrington PR. The etiology of idiopathic scoliosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1977;126:17–25.
Hasler CC. Operative treatment for spinal deformities in cerebral palsy. J Child Orthop. 2013;7(5):419–23.
Hassanzadeh H, Nandyala SV, Puvanesarajah V, et al. Serial Mehta cast utilization in infantile idiopathic scoliosis: evaluation of radiographic predictors. J Pediatr Orthop. 2017;37(6):387–91.
Hattaway GL. Congenital scoliosis in one of monozygotic twins: a case report. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1977;59(6):837–8.
Hawary RE, Zaaroor-Regev D, Floman Y, et al. Brace treatment in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: risk factors for failure-a literature review. Spine J. 2019;19(12):1917–25.
Heary RF, Bono CM, Black M. Thoracic pedicle screws: postoperative computerized tomography scanning assessment. J Neurosurg. 2004;100(4 Suppl Spine):325–31.
Hedequist DJ, Emans JB. The correlation of preoperative three-dimensional computed tomography reconstructions with operative findings in congenital scoliosis. Spine. 2003;28(22):2531–4; discussion 2531.
Hedequist DJ, Hall JE, Emans JB. The safety and efficacy of spinal instrumentation in children with congenital spine deformities. Spine. 2004;29(18):2081–6; discussion 2087.
Hedequist DJ, Hall JE, Emans JB. Hemivertebra excision in children via simultaneous anterior and posterior exposures. J Pediatr Orthop. 2005;25(1):60–3.
Hee HT, Yu ZR, Wong HK. Comparison of segmental pedicle screw instrumentation versus anterior instrumentation in adolescent idiopathic thoracolumbar and lumbar scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2007;32(14):1533–42.
Hefti FL, McMaster MJ. The effect of the adolescent growth spurt on early posterior spinal fusion in infantile and juvenile idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1983;65(3):247–54.
Helenius I, Remes V, Yrjonen T, et al. Does gender affect outcome of surgery in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis? Spine. 2005;30(4):462–7.
Helenius IJ, Sponseller PD, Mackenzie W, et al. Outcomes of spinal fusion for cervical kyphosis in children with Neurofibromatosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2016;98(21):e95.
Helmers SL, Hall JE. Intraoperative somatosensory evoked potential monitoring in pediatrics. J Pediatr Orthop. 1994;14(5):592–8.
Herzka A, Sponseller PD, Pyeritz RE. Atlantoaxial rotatory subluxation in patients with Marfan syndrome. A report of three cases. Spine. 2000;25(4):524–6.
Heydemann JS, Gillespie R. Management of myelomeningocele kyphosis in the older child by kyphectomy and segmental spinal instrumentation. Spine. 1987;12(1):37–41.
Hilibrand AS, Blakemore LC, Loder RT, et al. The role of melatonin in the pathogenesis of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1996;21(10):1140–6.
Holcomb GW 3rd, Mencio GA, Green NE. Video-assisted thoracoscopic diskectomy and fusion. J Pediatr Surg. 1997;32(7):1120–2.
Hollenbeck SM, Yaszay B, Sponseller PD, et al. The pros and cons of operating early versus late in the progression of cerebral palsy scoliosis. Spine Deform. 2019;7(3):489–93.
Holte DC, Winter RB, Lonstein JE, et al. Excision of hemivertebrae and wedge resection in the treatment of congenital scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995;77(2):159–71.
Hopf A, Eysel P, Dubousset J. CDH: preliminary report on a new anterior spinal instrumentation. Eur Spine J. 1995;4(3):194–9.
Hopf CG, Eysel P, Dubousset J. Operative treatment of scoliosis with Cotrel-Dubousset-Hopf instrumentation. New anterior spinal device. Spine. 1997;22(6):618–27; discussion 627–618.
Hosalkar HS, Luedtke LM, Drummond DS. New technique in congenital scoliosis involving fixation to the pelvis after hemivertebra excision. Spine. 2004;29(22):2581–7.
Hosseini P, Akbarnia BA, Nguyen S, et al. Construct levels to anchored levels ratio and rod diameter are associated with implant-related complications in traditional growing rods. Spine Deform. 2018;6(3):320–6.
How NE, Street JT, Dvorak MF, et al. Pseudarthrosis in adult and pediatric spinal deformity surgery: a systematic review of the literature and meta-analysis of incidence, characteristics, and risk factors. Neurosurg Rev. 2019;42(2):319–36.
Hresko MT, Talwalkar V, Schwend R, et al. Early detection of idiopathic scoliosis in adolescents. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2016;98(16):e67.
Hsu JD. The natural history of spine curvature progression in the nonambulatory Duchenne muscular dystrophy patient. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1983;8(7):771–5.
Hsu JD, Slager UT, Swank SM, et al. Idiopathic scoliosis: a clinical, morphometric, and histopathological correlation. J Pediatr Orthop. 1988;8(2):147–52.
Huang TJ, Lubicky JP. Kyphectomy and segmental spinal instrumentation in young children with myelomeningocele kyphosis. J Formos Med Assoc. 1994;93(6):503–8.
Huber M, Gilbert G, Roy J, et al. Sensitivity of MRI parameters within intervertebral discs to the severity of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2016;44(5):1123–31.
Hughes LO, McCarthy RE, Glasier CM. Segmental spinal dysgenesis: a report of three cases. J Pediatr Orthop. 1998;18(2):227–32.
Hui SC, Pialasse JP, Wong JY, et al. Radiation dose of digital radiography (DR) versus micro-dose x-ray (EOS) on patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: 2016 SOSORT- IRSSD “John Sevastic award” winner in imaging research. Scoliosis Spinal Disord. 2016;11:46.
Hur SR, Huizenga BA, Major M. Acute normovolemic hemodilution combined with hypotensive anesthesia and other techniques to avoid homologous transfusion in spinal fusion surgery. Spine. 1992;17(8):867–73.
Iannaccone ST, Owens H, Scott J, et al. Postoperative malnutrition in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J Child Neurol. 2003;18(1):17–20.
Ilharreborde B. Sagittal balance and idiopathic scoliosis: does final sagittal alignment influence outcomes, degeneration rate or failure rate? Eur Spine J. 2018;27(Suppl 1):48–58.
Ilharreborde B, Ferrero E, Alison M, et al. EOS microdose protocol for the radiological follow-up of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Eur Spine J. 2016;25(2):526–31.
Imahiyerobo T, Minkara AA, Matsumoto H, et al. Plastic multilayered closure in Pediatric nonidiopathic scoliosis is associated with a lower than expected incidence of wound complications and surgical site infections. Spine Deform. 2018;6(4):454–9.
Imaizumi K, Masuno M, Ishii T, et al. Congenital scoliosis (hemivertebra) associated with de novo balanced reciprocal translocation, 46, XX, t(13;17)(q34;p11.2). Am J Med Genet. 1997;73(3):244–6.
Inoh H, Kawakami N, Matsuyama Y, et al. Correlation between the age of pinealectomy and the development of scoliosis in chickens. Spine. 2001;26(9):1014–21.
Inoue M, Minami S, Nakata Y, et al. Preoperative MRI analysis of patients with idiopathic scoliosis: a prospective study. Spine. 2005;30(1):108–14.
Iorio J, Orlando G, Diefenbach C, et al. Serial casting for infantile idiopathic scoliosis: radiographic outcomes and factors associated with response to treatment. J Pediatr Orthop. 2017;37(5):311–6.
Irwin MG, Henderson M. Cardiac arrest during major spinal scoliosis surgery in a patient with Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy undergoing intravenous anaesthesia. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1995;23(5):626–9.
Jackson T, Yaszay B, Sponseller PD, et al. Factors associated with surgical approach and outcomes in cerebral palsy scoliosis. Eur Spine J. 2019;28(3):567–80.
Jain A, Njoku DB, Sponseller PD. Does patient diagnosis predict blood loss during posterior spinal fusion in children? Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(19):1683–7.
Jain A, Sponseller PD, Shah SA, et al. Subclassification of GMFCS Level-5 cerebral palsy as a predictor of complications and health-related quality of life after spinal arthrodesis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2016;98(21):1821–8.
Jain A, Thompson JM, Brooks JT, et al. Implant-related fractures in children with proximal femoral osteotomy: blade plate versus screw-side plate constructs. J Pediatr Orthop. 2016;36(1):e1–5.
Jalanko T, Rintala R, Puisto V, et al. Hemivertebra resection for congenital scoliosis in young children: comparison of clinical, radiographic, and health-related quality of life outcomes between the anteroposterior and posterolateral approaches. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2011;36(1):41–9.
James JI. Idiopathic scoliosis; the prognosis, diagnosis, and operative indications related to curve patterns and the age at onset. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1954;36-B(1):36–49.
James JI. The etiology of scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1970;52(3):410–9.
Janicki JA, Poe-Kochert C, Armstrong DG, et al. A comparison of the thoracolumbosacral orthoses and providence orthosis in the treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: results using the new SRS inclusion and assessment criteria for bracing studies. J Pediatr Orthop. 2007;27(4):369–74.
Jevsevar DS, Karlin LI. The relationship between preoperative nutritional status and complications after an operation for scoliosis in patients who have cerebral palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1993;75(6):880–4.
Johansson MS, Jensen Stochkendahl M, Hartvigsen J, et al. Incidence and prognosis of mid-back pain in the general population: a systematic review. Eur J Pain. 2017;21(1):20–8.
Johnston CE. Anterior correction of thoracolumbar and lumbar idiopathic scoliosis. Semin Spine Surg. 1997;9:150.
Johnston CE 2nd, Hakala MW, Rosenberger R. Paralytic spinal deformity: orthotic treatment in spinal discontinuity syndromes. J Pediatr Orthop. 1982;2(3):233–41.
Johnston CE, Herring JA, Ashman RB. Texas Scottish Rite Hospital (TSRH) universal spinal instrumentation system. In: An HS, Cotler JM, editors. Spinal instrumentation. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1992. p. 127.
Johnston CE, McClung AM, Thompson GH, et al. Comparison of growing rod instrumentation versus serial cast treatment for early-onset scoliosis. Spine Deform. 2013;1(5):339–42.
Johnston CE, Tran DP, McClung A. Functional and radiographic outcomes following growth-sparing Management of Early-Onset Scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2017;99(12):1036–42.
Jones KB, Erkula G, Sponseller PD, et al. Spine deformity correction in Marfan syndrome. Spine. 2002;27(18):2003–12.
Jones RS, Kennedy JD, Hasham F, et al. Mechanical inefficiency of the thoracic cage in scoliosis. Thorax. 1981;36(6):456–61.
Jonker D, Castelein R. Blood saving in spine surgery. Curr Orthop. 2000;14:365.
Joseph KN, Kane HA, Milner RS, et al. Orthopedic aspects of the Marfan phenotype. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1992;(277):251–61.
Justice CM, Miller NH, Marosy B, et al. Familial idiopathic scoliosis: evidence of an X-linked susceptibility locus. Spine. 2003;28(6):589–94.
Kalen V, Conklin MM, Sherman FC. Untreated scoliosis in severe cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 1992;12(3):337–40.
Kamaci S, Demirkiran G, Ismayilov V, et al. The effect of dual growing rod instrumentation on the apical vertebral rotation in early-onset idiopathic scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2014;34(6):607–12.
Kamimura M, Ebara S, Itoh H, et al. Accurate pedicle screw insertion under the control of a computer-assisted image guiding system: laboratory test and clinical study. J Orthop Sci. 1999;4(3):197–206.
Kandwal P, Goswami A, Vijayaraghavan G, et al. Staged anterior release and posterior instrumentation in correction of severe rigid scoliosis (cobb angle >100 degrees). Spine Deform. 2016;4(4):296–303.
Kaneda K, Satoh S, Fujiya N. Analysis of results with Zielke instrumentation for thoracolumbar and lumbar curvature. Nippon Seikeigeka Gakkai Zasshi. 1985;59(8):841–51.
Kaneda K, Shono Y, Satoh S, et al. New anterior instrumentation for the management of thoracolumbar and lumbar scoliosis. Application of the Kaneda two-rod system. Spine. 1996;21(10):1250–61; discussion 1261–1252.
Karol LA. Scoliosis in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2007;89(Suppl 1):155–62.
Karol LA, Johnston C, Mladenov K, et al. Pulmonary function following early thoracic fusion in non-neuromuscular scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2008;90(6):1272–81.
Karol LA, Johnston CE 2nd, Browne RH, et al. Progression of the curve in boys who have idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1993;75(12):1804–10.
Karol LA, Virostek D, Felton K, et al. The effect of the Risser stage on bracing outcome in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2016;98(15):1253–9.
Karol LA, Virostek D, Felton K, et al. Effect of compliance Counseling on brace use and success in patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2016;98(1):9–14.
Katz DE, Herring JA, Browne RH, et al. Brace wear control of curve progression in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2010;92(6):1343–52.
Katz DE, Richards BS, Browne RH, et al. A comparison between the Boston brace and the Charleston bending brace in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1997;22(12):1302–12.
Kawabata S, Watanabe K, Hosogane N, et al. Surgical correction of severe cervical kyphosis in patients with neurofibromatosis type 1. J Neurosurg Spine. 2013;18(3):274–9.
Kawakami N, Tsuji T, Imagama S, et al. Classification of congenital scoliosis and kyphosis: a new approach to the three-dimensional classification for progressive vertebral anomalies requiring operative treatment. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(17):1756–65.
Kelfer HM, Singer WD, Reynolds RN. Malignant hyperthermia in a child with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Pediatrics. 1983;71(1):118–9.
Kelly DM, McCarthy RE, McCullough FL, et al. Long-term outcomes of anterior spinal fusion with instrumentation for thoracolumbar and lumbar curves in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2010;35(2):194–8.
Kennedy JD, Staples AJ, Brook PD, et al. Effect of spinal surgery on lung function in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Thorax. 1995;50(11):1173–8.
Kesling KL, Lonstein JE, Denis F, et al. The crankshaft phenomenon after posterior spinal arthrodesis for congenital scoliosis: a review of 54 patients. Spine. 2003;28(3):267–71.
Kesling KL, Reinker KA. Scoliosis in twins. A meta-analysis of the literature and report of six cases. Spine. 1997;22(17):2009–14; discussion 2015.
Kester K. Epidural pain management for the pediatric spinal fusion patient. Orthop Nurs. 1997;16(6):55–60; quiz 61–52.
Khanna N, Molinari R, Lenke L. Exertional myelopathy in type 2 congenital kyphosis. Spine. 2002;27(22):E488–92.
Khong PL, Goh WH, Wong VC, et al. MR imaging of spinal tumors in children with neurofibromatosis 1. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2003;180(2):413–7.
Khoshbin A, Vivas L, Law PW, et al. The long-term outcome of patients treated operatively and non-operatively for scoliosis deformity secondary to spina bifida. Bone Joint J. 2014;96-B(9):1244–51.
Khoshhal KI, Ellis RD. Paraparesis after posterior spinal fusion in neurofibromatosis secondary to rib displacement: case report and literature review. J Pediatr Orthop. 2000;20(6):799–801.
Kim HW, Weinstein SL. Spine update. The management of scoliosis in neurofibromatosis. Spine. 1997;22(23):2770–6.
Kim HW, Weinstein SL. Atypical congenital kyphosis. Report of two cases with long-term follow-up. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1998;80(1):25–9.
Kim YJ, Lenke LG, Cho SK, et al. Comparative analysis of pedicle screw versus hook instrumentation in posterior spinal fusion of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2004;29(18):2040–8.
Kim YJ, Lenke LG, Kim J, et al. Comparative analysis of pedicle screw versus hybrid instrumentation in posterior spinal fusion of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2006;31(3):291–8.
Kim YJ, Otsuka NY, Flynn JM, et al. Surgical treatment of congenital kyphosis. Spine. 2001;26(20):2251–7.
Kindsfater K, Lowe T, Lawellin D, et al. Levels of platelet calmodulin for the prediction of progression and severity of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1994;76(8):1186–92.
King HA, Moe JH, Bradford DS, et al. The selection of fusion levels in thoracic idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1983;65(9):1302–13.
King JD, Lowery GL. Results of lumbar hemivertebral excision for congenital scoliosis. Spine. 1991;16(7):778–82.
Kirzner N, Hilliard L, Martin C, et al. Bone graft in posterior spine fusion for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a meta-analysis. ANZ J Surg. 2018;88(12):1247–52.
Kjaer P, Wedderkopp N, Korsholm L, et al. Prevalence and tracking of back pain from childhood to adolescence. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2011;12:98.
Klein JD, Garfin SR. Nutritional status in the patient with spinal infection. Orthop Clin North Am. 1996;27(1):33–6.
Klemme WR, Denis F, Winter RB, et al. Spinal instrumentation without fusion for progressive scoliosis in young children. J Pediatr Orthop. 1997;17(6):734–42.
Klemme WR, Polly DW, Orchowski JR. Hemivertebral excision for congenital scoliosis in very young children. J Pediatr Orthop. 2001;21(6):761–4.
Ko AL, Song K, Ellenbogen RG, et al. Retrospective review of multilevel spinal fusion combined with spinal cord transection for treatment of kyphoscoliosis in pediatric myelomeningocele patients. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2007;32(22):2493–501.
Koptan W, ElMiligui Y. Surgical correction of severe dystrophic neurofibromatosis scoliosis: an experience of 32 cases. Eur Spine J. 2010;19(9):1569–75.
Korovessis P, Syrimpeis V, Tsekouras V, et al. Effect of the Cheneau brace in the natural history of moderate adolescent idiopathic scoliosis in girls: cohort analysis of a selected homogenous population of 100 consecutive skeletally immature patients. Spine Deform. 2018;6(5):514–22.
Kotani T, Minami S, Takahashi K, et al. Three dimensional analysis of chest wall motion during breathing in healthy individuals and patients with scoliosis using an ultrasonography-based system. Stud Health Technol Inform. 2002;91:135–9.
Kruger LM, Colbert JM. Intraoperative autologous transfusion in children undergoing spinal surgery. J Pediatr Orthop. 1985;5(3):330–2.
Kugelberg E, Welander L. Heredofamilial juvenile muscular atrophy simulating muscular dystrophy. AMA Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1956;75(5):500–9.
Kuklo TR, Lenke LG, O'Brien MF, et al. Accuracy and efficacy of thoracic pedicle screws in curves more than 90 degrees. Spine. 2005;30(2):222–6.
Kuklo TR, Potter BK, Polly DW Jr, et al. Reliability analysis for manual adolescent idiopathic scoliosis measurements. Spine. 2005;30(4):444–54.
Kumar SJ, Guille JT. Marfan syndrome. In: Weinstein SL, editor. The pediatric spine: principles and practice. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p. 665.
Kuntz CT, Maher PC, Levine NB, et al. Prospective evaluation of thoracic pedicle screw placement using fluoroscopic imaging. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2004;17(3):206–14.
Kurz LT, Mubarak SJ, Schultz P, et al. Correlation of scoliosis and pulmonary function in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J Pediatr Orthop. 1983;3(3):347–53.
Kwan MK, Chiu CK, Gani SM, et al. Accuracy and safety of pedicle screw placement in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis patients: a review of 2020 screws using computed tomography assessment. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2017;42(5):326–35.
Laine T, Lund T, Ylikoski M, et al. Accuracy of pedicle screw insertion with and without computer assistance: a randomised controlled clinical study in 100 consecutive patients. Eur Spine J. 2000;9(3):235–40.
Lalonde F, Jarvis J. Congenital kyphosis in myelomeningocele. The effect of cordotomy on bladder function. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1999;81(2):245–9.
Lam KS, Mehdian H, White B. The effects of simple trauma on patients with cervical spine neurofibromatosis: two case reports. Eur Spine J. 1997;6(1):77–80.
LaMont LE, Jo C, Molinari S, et al. Radiographic, pulmonary, and clinical outcomes with halo gravity traction. Spine Deform. 2019;7(1):40–6.
Landman Z, Oswald T, Sanders J, et al. Prevalence and predictors of pain in surgical treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2011;36(10):825–9.
Lansford TJ, Burton DC, Asher MA, et al. Radiographic and patient-based outcome analysis of different bone-grafting techniques in the surgical treatment of idiopathic scoliosis with a minimum 4-year follow-up: allograft versus autograft/allograft combination. Spine J. 2013;13(5):523–9.
Lapinksy AS, Richards BS. Preventing the crankshaft phenomenon by combining anterior fusion with posterior instrumentation. Does it work? Spine. 1995;20(12):1392–8.
Larsen UT, Juhl B, Hein-Sorensen O, et al. Complications during anaesthesia in patients with Duchenne's muscular dystrophy (a retrospective study). Can J Anaesth. 1989;36(4):418–22.
Larson AN, Fletcher ND, Daniel C, et al. Lumbar curve is stable after selective thoracic fusion for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a 20-year follow-up. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(10):833–9.
Larson AN, Polly DW Jr, Ackerman SJ, et al. What would be the annual cost savings if fewer screws were used in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis treatment in the US? J Neurosurg Spine. 2016;24(1):116–23.
Larson AN, Polly DW Jr, Diamond B, et al. Does higher anchor density result in increased curve correction and improved clinical outcomes in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis? Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2014;39(7):571–8.
Le Naveaux F, Aubin CE, Larson AN, et al. Implant distribution in surgically instrumented Lenke 1 adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: does it affect curve correction? Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2015;40(7):462–8.
Lebel DE, Corston JA, McAdam LC, et al. Glucocorticoid treatment for the prevention of scoliosis in children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy: long-term follow-up. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013;95(12):1057–61.
Lebon J, Batailler C, Wargny M, et al. Magnetically controlled growing rod in early onset scoliosis: a 30-case multicenter study. Eur Spine J. 2017;26(6):1567–76.
Ledonio CG, Rosenstein BE, Johnston CE, et al. Pulmonary function tests correlated with thoracic volumes in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Orthop Res. 2017;35(1):175–82.
Lee CK, Denis F, Winter RB, et al. Analysis of the upper thoracic curve in surgically treated idiopathic scoliosis. A new concept of the double thoracic curve pattern. Spine. 1993;18(12):1599–608.
Lee CS, Hwang CJ, Kim NH, et al. Preoperative magnetic resonance imaging evaluation in patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Asian Spine J. 2017;11(1):37–43.
Lee S-M, Suk S-I, Chung E-R. Direct vertebral rotation: a new technique of three-dimensional deformity correction with segmental pedicle screw fixation in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2004;29(3):343–9.
Lefebvre S, Burglen L, Reboullet S, et al. Identification and characterization of a spinal muscular atrophy-determining gene. Cell. 1995;80(1):155–65.
Lehman RA Jr, Lenke LG, Keeler KA, et al. Operative treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis with posterior pedicle screw-only constructs: minimum three-year follow-up of one hundred fourteen cases. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2008;33(14):1598–604.
Lenke LG. Debate: resolved, a 55 degrees right thoracic adolescent idiopathic scoliotic curve should be treated by posterior spinal fusion and segmental instrumentation using thoracic pedicle screws: pro: thoracic pedicle screws should be used to treat a 55 degrees right thoracic adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2004;24(3):329–34; discussion 338–321.
Lenke LG, Betz RR, Bridwell KH, et al. Spontaneous lumbar curve coronal correction after selective anterior or posterior thoracic fusion in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1999;24(16):1663–71; discussion 1672.
Lenke LG, Betz RR, Clements D, et al. Curve prevalence of a new classification of operative adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: does classification correlate with treatment? Spine. 2002;27(6):604–11.
Lenke LG, Betz RR, Haher TR, et al. Multisurgeon assessment of surgical decision-making in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: curve classification, operative approach, and fusion levels. Spine. 2001;26(21):2347–53.
Lenke LG, Betz RR, Harms J, et al. Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a new classification to determine extent of spinal arthrodesis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2001;83-A(8):1169–81.
Lenke LG, Bridwell KH, Baldus C, et al. Preventing decompensation in King type II curves treated with Cotrel-Dubousset instrumentation. Strict guidelines for selective thoracic fusion. Spine. 1992;17(8 Suppl):S274–81.
Lenke LG, Bridwell KH, O'Brien MF, et al. Recognition and treatment of the proximal thoracic curve in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis treated with Cotrel-Dubousset instrumentation. Spine. 1994;19(14):1589–97.
Lenke LG, Edwards CC 2nd, Bridwell KH. The Lenke classification of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: how it organizes curve patterns as a template to perform selective fusions of the spine. Spine. 2003;28(20):S199–207.
Lenke LG, Newton PO, Sucato DJ, et al. Complications after 147 consecutive vertebral column resections for severe Pediatric spinal deformity: a Multicenter analysis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2013;38(2):119–32.
Lenke LG, O’Leary PT, Bridwell KH, et al. Posterior vertebral column resection for severe pediatric deformity: minimum two-year follow-up of thirty-five consecutive patients. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(20):2213–21.
Lenke LG, Sides BA, Koester LA, et al. Vertebral column resection for the treatment of severe spinal deformity. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2010;468(3):687–99.
Letts M, Rathbone D, Yamashita T, et al. Soft Boston orthosis in management of neuromuscular scoliosis: a preliminary report. J Pediatr Orthop. 1992;12(4):470–4.
Lewonowski K, King JD, Nelson MD. Routine use of magnetic resonance imaging in idiopathic scoliosis patients less than eleven years of age. Spine. 1992;17(6 Suppl):S109–16.
Li DT, Cui JJ, DeVries S, et al. Humeral head ossification predicts peak height velocity timing and percentage of growth remaining in children. J Pediatr Orthop. 2018;38(9):e546–50.
Li DT, Linderman GC, Cui JJ, et al. The proximal humeral ossification system improves assessment of maturity in patients with scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2019;101(20):1868–74.
Li ZC, Liu ZD, Dai LY. Surgical treatment of scoliosis associated with Marfan syndrome by using posterior-only instrumentation. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2011;20(2):63–6.
Liebergall M, Floman Y, Eldor A. Functional, biochemical, and structural anomalies in platelets of patients with idiopathic scoliosis. J Spinal Disord. 1989;2(2):126–30.
Liljenqvist U, Halm H, Bullmann V. Spontaneous lumbar curve correction in selective anterior instrumentation and fusion of idiopathic thoracic scoliosis of Lenke type C. Eur Spine J. 2013;22(Suppl 2):S138–48.
Liljenqvist UR, Allkemper T, Hackenberg L, et al. Analysis of vertebral morphology in idiopathic scoliosis with use of magnetic resonance imaging and multiplanar reconstruction. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2002;84-A(3):359–68.
Liljenqvist UR, Halm HF, Link TM. Pedicle screw instrumentation of the thoracic spine in idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1997;22(19):2239–45.
Lindseth RE. Myelomeningocele spine. In: Weinstein SL, editor. The pediatric spine: principles and practice. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p. 1043.
Lindseth RE, Stelzer L Jr. Vertebral excision for kyphosis in children with myelomeningocele. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1979;61(5):699–704.
Lintner SA, Lindseth RE. Kyphotic deformity in patients who have a myelomeningocele. Operative treatment and long-term follow-up. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1994;76(9):1301–7.
Little DG, Song KM, Katz D, et al. Relationship of peak height velocity to other maturity indicators in idiopathic scoliosis in girls. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2000;82(5):685–93.
Liu T, Chu WC, Young G, et al. MR analysis of regional brain volume in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: neurological manifestation of a systemic disease. J Magn Reson Imaging. 2008;27(4):732–6.
Lo Cicero S, Capon F, Melchionda S, et al. First-trimester prenatal diagnosis of spinal muscular atrophy using microsatellite markers. Prenat Diagn. 1994;14(6):459–62.
Loder RT, Shapiro P, Towbin R, et al. Aortic anatomy in children with myelomeningocele and congenital lumbar kyphosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 1991;11(1):31–5.
Loder RT, Urquhart A, Steen H, et al. Variability in cobb angle measurements in children with congenital scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1995;77(5):768–70.
Lonner BS, Ren Y, Newton PO, et al. Risk factors of proximal junctional kyphosis in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis-the pelvis and other considerations. Spine Deform. 2017;5(3):181–8.
Lonstein JE. Natural history and school screening for scoliosis. Orthop Clin North Am. 1988;19(2):227–37.
Lonstein JE. Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: screening and diagnosis. Instr Course Lect. 1989;38:105–13.
Lonstein JE, Akbarnia A. Operative treatment of spinal deformities in patients with cerebral palsy or mental retardation. An analysis of one hundred and seven cases. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1983;65(1):43–55.
Lonstein JE, Bjorklund S, Wanninger MH, et al. Voluntary school screening for scoliosis in Minnesota. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1982;64(4):481–8.
Lonstein JE, Carlson JM. The prediction of curve progression in untreated idiopathic scoliosis during growth. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1984;66(7):1061–71.
Lonstein JE, Koop SE, Novachek TF, et al. Results and complications after spinal fusion for neuromuscular scoliosis in cerebral palsy and static encephalopathy using Luque Galveston instrumentation: experience in 93 patients. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(7):583–91.
Lonstein JE, Winter RB. The Milwaukee brace for the treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. A review of one thousand and twenty patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1994;76(8):1207–21.
Lopez-Sosa F, Guille JT, Bowen JR. Rotation of the spine in congenital scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 1995;15(4):528–34.
Low WD, Chew EC, Kung LS, et al. Ultrastructures of nerve fibers and muscle spindles in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1983;(174):217–21.
Lowe GP, Menelaus MB. The surgical management of kyphosis in older children with myelomeningocele. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1978;60(1):40–5.
Lowe T, Lawellin D, Smith D, et al. Platelet calmodulin levels in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: do the levels correlate with curve progression and severity? Spine. 2002;27(7):768–75.
Lowe TG, Burwell RG, Dangerfield PH. Platelet calmodulin levels in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS): can they predict curve progression and severity? Summary of an electronic focus group debate of the IBSE. Eur Spine J. 2004;13(3):257–65.
Lowe TG, Enguidanos ST, Smith DA, et al. Single-rod versus dual-rod anterior instrumentation for idiopathic scoliosis: a biomechanical study. Spine. 2005;30(3):311–7.
Lowry KJ, Tobias J, Kittle D, et al. Postoperative pain control using epidural catheters after anterior spinal fusion for adolescent scoliosis. Spine. 2001;26(11):1290–3.
Luhmann SJ, Lenke LG, Bridwell KH, et al. Revision surgery after primary spine fusion for idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(20):2191–7.
Luk KD, Hu Y, Wong YW, et al. Evaluation of various evoked potential techniques for spinal cord monitoring during scoliosis surgery. Spine. 2001;26(16):1772–7.
Luque ER. Paralytic scoliosis in growing children. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1982;163:202–9.
Lykissas MG, Crawford AH, Chan G, et al. The effect of tranexamic acid in blood loss and transfusion volume in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis surgery: a single-surgeon experience. J Child Orthop. 2013;7(3):245–9.
Lykissas MG, Schorry EK, Crawford AH, et al. Does the presence of dystrophic features in patients with type 1 neurofibromatosis and spinal deformities increase the risk of surgery? Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2013;38(18):1595–601.
MacEwen GD, Bunnell WP, Sriram K. Acute neurological complications in the treatment of scoliosis. A report of the Scoliosis Research Society. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1975;57(3):404–8.
MacEwen GD, Winter RB, Hardy JH. Evaluation of kidney anomalies in congenital scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1972;54(7):1451–4.
Machida M, Dubousset J, Imamura Y, et al. An experimental study in chickens for the pathogenesis of idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1993;18(12):1609–15.
Machida M, Dubousset J, Imamura Y, et al. Role of melatonin deficiency in the development of scoliosis in pinealectomised chickens. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1995;77(1):134–8.
Machida M, Dubousset J, Imamura Y, et al. Pathogenesis of idiopathic scoliosis: SEPs in chicken with experimentally induced scoliosis and in patients with idiopathic scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 1994;14(3):329–35.
Machida M, Dubousset J, Imamura Y, et al. Melatonin. A possible role in pathogenesis of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1996;21(10):1147–52.
Machida M, Dubousset J, Satoh T, et al. Pathologic mechanism of experimental scoliosis in pinealectomized chickens. Spine. 2001;26(17):E385–91.
Machida M, Miyashita Y, Murai I, et al. Role of serotonin for scoliotic deformity in pinealectomized chicken. Spine. 1997;22(12):1297–301.
Macke JJ, Woo R, Varich L. Accuracy of robot-assisted pedicle screw placement for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis in the pediatric population. J Robot Surg. 2016;10(2):145–50.
Madigan RR, Wallace SL. Scoliosis in the institutionalized cerebral palsy population. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1981;6(6):583–90.
Maisenbacher MK, Han JS, O’Brien ML, et al. Molecular analysis of congenital scoliosis: a candidate gene approach. Hum Genet. 2005;116(5):416–9.
Majd ME, Muldowny DS, Holt RT. Natural history of scoliosis in the institutionalized adult cerebral palsy population. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1997;22(13):1461–6.
Malviya S, Merkel S. Acute pain management. In: Richards BS, editor. Orthopaedic knowledge update--pediatrics. Rosemont: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons; 1996. p. 47.
Mao SH, Shi B, Sun X, et al. Morphometric analysis of iatrogenic breast asymmetry secondary to operative breast shape changes in thoracic adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Eur Spine J. 2016;25(10):3075–81.
Mardjetko SM, Hammerberg KW, Lubicky JP, et al. The Luque trolley revisited. Review of nine cases requiring revision. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1992;17(5):582–9.
Margalit A, McKean G, Constantine A, et al. Body mass hides the curve: thoracic Scoliometer readings vary by body mass index value. J Pediatr Orthop. 2017;37(4):e255–60.
Marks DS, Qaimkhani SA. The natural history of congenital scoliosis and kyphosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(17):1751–5.
Marks MC, Newton PO, Bastrom TP, et al. Surgical site infection in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis surgery. Spine Deform. 2013;1(5):352–8.
Marsh A, Edge G, Lehovsky J. Spinal fusion in patients with Duchenne's muscular dystrophy and a low forced vital capacity. Eur Spine J. 2003;12(5):507–12.
Martin J Jr, Kumar SJ, Guille JT, et al. Congenital kyphosis in myelomeningocele: results following operative and nonoperative treatment. J Pediatr Orthop. 1994;14(3):323–8.
Master DL, Poe-Kochert C, Son-Hing J, et al. Wound infections after surgery for neuromuscular scoliosis: risk factors and treatment outcomes. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2011;36(3):E179–85.
Matsumoto H, Williams BA, Corona J, et al. Psychosocial effects of repetitive surgeries in children with early-onset scoliosis: are we putting them at risk? J Pediatr Orthop. 2014;34(2):172–8.
Maurice B. Anterior instrumentation (dual screws single rod system) for the surgical treatment of idiopathic scoliosis in the lumbar area: a prospective study on 33 adolescents and young adults, based on a new system of classification. Eur Spine J. 2013;22(Suppl 2):S149–63.
Mayell A, Srinivasan I, Campbell F, et al. Analgesic effects of gabapentin after scoliosis surgery in children: a randomized controlled trial. Paediatr Anaesth. 2014;24(12):1239–44.
Mayfield JK, Winter RB, Bradford DS, et al. Congenital kyphosis due to defects of anterior segmentation. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1980;62(8):1291–301.
Mazur J, Menelaus MB, Dickens DR, et al. Efficacy of surgical management for scoliosis in myelomeningocele: correction of deformity and alteration of functional status. J Pediatr Orthop. 1986;6(5):568–75.
McCall RE. Modified Luque instrumentation after myelomeningocele kyphectomy. Spine. 1998;23(12):1406–11.
McCarthy JJ, D’Andrea LP, Betz RR, et al. Scoliosis in the child with cerebral palsy. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2006;14(6):367–75.
McCarthy RE, Luhmann S, Lenke L, et al. The Shilla growth guidance technique for early-onset spinal deformities at 2-year follow-up: a preliminary report. J Pediatr Orthop. 2014;34(1):1–7.
McElroy MJ, Shaner AC, Crawford TO, et al. Growing rods for scoliosis in spinal muscular atrophy: structural effects, complications, and hospital stays. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2011;36(16):1305–11.
McKenna C, Wade R, Faria R, et al. EOS 2D/3D X-ray imaging system: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess. 2012;16(14):1–188.
McMaster MJ. Occult intraspinal anomalies and congenital scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1984;66(4):588–601.
McMaster MJ. Anterior and posterior instrumentation and fusion of thoracolumbar scoliosis due to myelomeningocele. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1987;69(1):20–5.
McMaster MJ. Congenital scoliosis. In: Weinstein SL, editor. The pediatric spine: principles and practice. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p. 227.
McMaster MJ. Congenital scoliosis caused by a unilateral failure of vertebral segmentation with contralateral hemivertebrae. Spine. 1998;23(9):998–1005.
McMaster MJ, McMaster ME. Prognosis for congenital scoliosis due to a unilateral failure of vertebral segmentation. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013;95(11):972–9.
McMaster MJ, Singh H. Natural history of congenital kyphosis and kyphoscoliosis. A study of one hundred and twelve patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1999;81(10):1367–83. https://doi.org/10.2106/00004623-199910000-00002. PMID: 10535587.
McMaster MJ, Singh H. The surgical management of congenital kyphosis and kyphoscoliosis. Spine. 2001;26(19):2146.
McNally CM, Visvanathan R, Liberali S, et al. Antibiotic prophylaxis for dental treatment after prosthetic joint replacement: exploring the orthopaedic surgeon's opinion. Arthroplast Today. 2016;2(3):123–6.
Mehlman CT, Crawford AH, Wolf RK. Video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS). Endoscopic thoracoplasty technique. Spine. 1997;22(18):2178–82.
Mehta MH. The rib-vertebra angle in the early diagnosis between resolving and progressive infantile scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1972;54(2):230–43.
Mehta MH. Growth as a corrective force in the early treatment of progressive infantile scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2005;87(9):1237–47.
Melhem E, Assi A, El Rachkidi R, et al. EOS((R)) biplanar X-ray imaging: concept, developments, benefits, and limitations. J Child Orthop. 2016;10(1):1–14.
Menten R, Mousny M, Saint-Martin C, et al. Planispheric multiplanar reformatted CT: a new method for evaluation of paediatric congenital spine abnormalities. Pediatr Radiol. 2005;35(6):627–9.
Merlini L, Granata C, Bonfiglioli S, et al. Scoliosis in spinal muscular atrophy: natural history and management. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1989;31(4):501–8.
Merriman M, Hu C, Noyes K, et al. Selection of the lowest level for fusion in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis-a systematic review and meta-analysis. Spine Deform. 2015;3(2):128–35.
Mesfin A, Ahn NU, Carrino JA, et al. Ten-year clinical and imaging follow-up of dural ectasia in adults with Marfan syndrome. Spine J. 2013;13(1):62–7.
Mignemi M, Tran D, Ramo B, et al. Repeat surgical interventions following “definitive” instrumentation and fusion for idiopathic scoliosis: 25-year update. Spine Deform. 2018;6(4):409–16.
Miller A, Temple T, Miller F. Impact of orthoses on the rate of scoliosis progression in children with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 1996;16(3):332–5.
Miller F, Moseley CF, Koreska J. Spinal fusion in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1992;34(9):775–86.
Miller F, Moseley CF, Koreska J, et al. Pulmonary function and scoliosis in Duchenne dystrophy. J Pediatr Orthop. 1988;8(2):133–7.
Miller NH, Justice CM, Marosy B, et al. Identification of candidate regions for familial idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2005;30(10):1181–7.
Miller NH, Mims B, Child A, et al. Genetic analysis of structural elastic fiber and collagen genes in familial adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Orthop Res. 1996;14(6):994–9.
Miller RG, Chalmers AC, Dao H, et al. The effect of spine fusion on respiratory function in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Neurology. 1991;41(1):38–40.
Miller RG, Hoffman EP. Molecular diagnosis and modern management of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Neurol Clin. 1994;12(4):699–725.
Milunsky A, Jick H, Jick SS, et al. Multivitamin/folic acid supplementation in early pregnancy reduces the prevalence of neural tube defects. JAMA. 1989;262(20):2847–52.
Minsk MK, Venuti KD, Daumit GL, et al. Effectiveness of the Rigo Cheneau versus Boston-style orthoses for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a retrospective study. Scoliosis Spinal Disord. 2017;12:7.
Mintz LJ, Sarwark JF, Dias LS, et al. The natural history of congenital kyphosis in myelomeningocele. A review of 51 children. Spine. 1991;16(8 Suppl):S348–50.
Miyanji F, Nasto LA, Bastrom T, et al. A detailed comparative analysis of anterior versus posterior approach to Lenke 5C curves. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2018;43(5):E285–91.
Miyanji F, Nasto LA, Sponseller PD, et al. Assessing the risk-benefit ratio of scoliosis surgery in cerebral palsy: surgery is worth it. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2018;100(7):556–63.
Miyanji F, Pawelek JB, Van Valin SE, et al. Is the lumbar modifier useful in surgical decision making?: defining two distinct Lenke 1A curve patterns. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2008;33(23):2545–51.
Mladenov KV, Vaeterlein C, Stuecker R. Selective posterior thoracic fusion by means of direct vertebral derotation in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: effects on the sagittal alignment. Eur Spine J. 2011;20(7):1114–7.
Modi HN, Suh SW, Srinivasalu S, et al. Comparison of apical axial derotation between adolescent idiopathic and neuromuscular scoliosis with pedicle screw instrumentation. Asian Spine J. 2008;2(2):74–80.
Moe JH. Historical aspects of scoliosis. In: Moe JH, editor. Moe’s textbook of scoliosis and other spinal deformities. 1. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1987.
Moe JH, Kharrat K, Winter RB, et al. Harrington instrumentation without fusion plus external orthotic support for the treatment of difficult curvature problems in young children. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1984;(185):35–45.
Moe JH, Purcell GA, Bradford DS. Zielke instrumentation (VDS) for the correction of spinal curvature. Analysis of results in 66 patients. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1983;(180):133–53.
Mohamed Ali MH, Koutharawu DN, Miller F, et al. Operative and clinical markers of deep wound infection after spine fusion in children with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 2010;30(8):851–7.
Mooney JF 3rd. Identical type I congenital kyphosis in male twins: a brief report. J Surg Orthop Adv. 2005;14(2):99–101.
Mooney V, Gulick J, Pozos R. A preliminary report on the effect of measured strength training in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Spinal Disord. 2000;13(2):102–7.
Moran MM, Kroon D, Tredwell SJ, et al. The role of autologous blood transfusion in adolescents undergoing spinal surgery. Spine. 1995;20(5):532–6.
Morcuende JA, Dolan LA, Vazquez JD, et al. A prognostic model for the presence of neurogenic lesions in atypical idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2004;29(1):51–8.
Morcuende JA, Minhas R, Dolan L, et al. Allelic variants of human melatonin 1A receptor in patients with familial adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2003;28(17):2025–8; discussion 2029.
Moreau A, da Wang S, Forget S, et al. Melatonin signaling dysfunction in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2004;29(16):1772–81.
Morrissy RT. School screening for scoliosis. Spine. 1999;24(24):2584–91.
Morrissy RT, Goldsmith GS, Hall EC, et al. Measurement of the Cobb angle on radiographs of patients who have scoliosis. Evaluation of intrinsic error. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1990;72(3):320–7.
Mostegl A, Bauer R, Eichenauer M. Intraoperative somatosensory potential monitoring. A clinical analysis of 127 surgical procedures. Spine. 1988;13(4):396–400.
Mubarak SJ, Camp JF, Vuletich W, et al. Halo application in the infant. J Pediatr Orthop. 1989;9(5):612–4.
Mubarak SJ, Morin WD, Leach J. Spinal fusion in Duchenne muscular dystrophy--fixation and fusion to the sacropelvis? J Pediatr Orthop. 1993;13(6):752–7.
Muhlrad A, Yarom R. Contractile protein studies on platelets from patients with idiopathic scoliosis. Haemostasis. 1982;11(3):154–60.
Muirhead A, Conner AN. The assessment of lung function in children with scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1985;67(5):699–702.
Muller EB, Nordwall A, von Wendt L. Influence of surgical treatment of scoliosis in children with spina bifida on ambulation and motoric skills. Acta Paediatr. 1992;81(2):173–6.
Murray DJ, Forbes RB, Titone MB, et al. Transfusion management in pediatric and adolescent scoliosis surgery. Efficacy of autologous blood. Spine. 1997;22(23):2735–40.
Mustard WT. A follow-up study of iliopsoas transfer for hip instability. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1959;41-B(2):289–98.
Nachemson A. A long term follow-up study of non-treated scoliosis. Acta Orthop Scand. 1968;39(4):466–76.
Nachemson AL, Peterson LE. Effectiveness of treatment with a brace in girls who have adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. A prospective, controlled study based on data from the Brace Study of the Scoliosis Research Society. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995;77(6):815–22.
Nakajima A, Kawakami N, Imagama S, et al. Three-dimensional analysis of formation failure in congenital scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2007;32(5):562–7.
Nakamura H, Matsuda H, Konishi S, et al. Single-stage excision of hemivertebrae via the posterior approach alone for congenital spine deformity: follow-up period longer than ten years. Spine. 2002;27(1):110–5.
Nash CL Jr, Moe JH. A study of vertebral rotation. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1969;51(2):223–9.
Nazareth A, Skaggs DL, Parent S. Growth guideance constructs with pedicle screw (Shilla) results in 1/5 of normal T1-S1 Growth. San Diego, CA: International Congress on Early Onset Scoliosis; 2017.
Negrini S, Atanasio S, Fusco C, et al. Effectiveness of complete conservative treatment for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (bracing and exercises) based on SOSORT management criteria: results according to the SRS criteria for bracing studies – SOSORT Award 2009 Winner. Scoliosis. 2009;4:19.
Negrini S, Fusco C, Minozzi S, et al. Exercises reduce the progression rate of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: results of a comprehensive systematic review of the literature. Disabil Rehabil. 2008;30(10):772–85.
Negrini S, Minozzi S, Bettany-Saltikov J, et al. Braces for idiopathic scoliosis in adolescents. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2016;41(23):1813–25.
Nelson LM, Ward K, Ogilvie JW. Genetic variants in melatonin synthesis and signaling pathway are not associated with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2011;36(1):37–40.
Newton PO. Thoracoscopic treatment of pediatric spinal deformity. Semin Spine Surg. 2003;15(3):244.
Newton PO. Spinal growth tethering: indications and limits. Ann Transl Med. 2020;8(2):27.
Newton PO, Farnsworth CL, Faro FD, et al. Spinal growth modulation with an anterolateral flexible tether in an immature bovine model: disc health and motion preservation. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2008;33(7):724–33.
Newton PO, Fricka KB, Lee SS, et al. Asymmetrical flexible tethering of spine growth in an immature bovine model. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2002;27(7):689–93.
Newton PO, Hahn GW, Fricka KB, et al. Utility of three-dimensional and multiplanar reformatted computed tomography for evaluation of pediatric congenital spine abnormalities. Spine. 2002;27(8):844–50.
Newton PO, Khandwala Y, Bartley CE, et al. New EOS imaging protocol allows a substantial reduction in radiation exposure for scoliosis patients. Spine Deform. 2016;4(2):138–44.
Newton PO, Marks MC, Bastrom TP, et al. Surgical treatment of Lenke 1 main thoracic idiopathic scoliosis: results of a prospective, multicenter study. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2013;38(4):328–38.
Newton PO, Shea KG, Granlund KF. Defining the pediatric spinal thoracoscopy learning curve: sixty-five consecutive cases. Spine. 2000;25(8):1028–35.
Newton PO, Wenger DR, Mubarak SJ, et al. Anterior release and fusion in pediatric spinal deformity. A comparison of early outcome and cost of thoracoscopic and open thoracotomy approaches. Spine. 1997;22(12):1398–406.
Niall DM, Dowling FE, Fogarty EE, et al. Kyphectomy in children with myelomeningocele: a long-term outcome study. J Pediatr Orthop. 2004;24(1):37–44.
Nishnianidze T, Bayhan IA, Abousamra O, et al. Factors predicting postoperative complications following spinal fusions in children with cerebral palsy scoliosis. Eur Spine J. 2016;25(2):627–34.
Nolden MT, Sarwark JF, Vora A, et al. A kyphectomy technique with reduced perioperative morbidity for myelomeningocele kyphosis. Spine. 2002;27(16):1807–13.
Noonan KJ, Walker T, Feinberg JR, et al. Factors related to false- versus true-positive neuromonitoring changes in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis surgery. Spine. 2002;27(8):825–30.
Noordeen MH, Haddad FS, Muntoni F, et al. Blood loss in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: vascular smooth muscle dysfunction? J Pediatr Orthop B. 1999;8(3):212–5.
Noordeen MH, Taylor BA, Edgar MA. Syringomyelia. A potential risk factor in scoliosis surgery. Spine. 1994;19(12):1406–9.
Nowak R, Szota J, Mazurek U. Vitamin D receptor gene (VDR) transcripts in bone, cartilage, muscles and blood and microarray analysis of vitamin D responsive genes expression in paravertebral muscles of juvenile and adolescent idiopathic scoliosis patients. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2012;13:259.
Nuwer MR, Dawson EG, Carlson LG, et al. Somatosensory evoked potential spinal cord monitoring reduces neurologic deficits after scoliosis surgery: results of a large multicenter survey. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1995;96(1):6–11.
O’Brien MF, Lenke LG, Bridwell KH, et al. Preoperative spinal canal investigation in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis curves > or = 70 degrees. Spine. 1994;19(14):1606–10.
O’Brien MF, Lenke LG, Mardjetko S, et al. Pedicle morphology in thoracic adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: is pedicle fixation an anatomically viable technique? Spine. 2000;25(18):2285–93.
O’Donnell C, Michael N, Pan X, et al. Anterior spinal fusion and posterior spinal fusion both effectively treat Lenke type 5 curves in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a Multicenter study. Spine Deform. 2018;6(3):231–40.
O’Donnell CS, Bunnell WP, Betz RR, et al. Electrical stimulation in the treatment of idiopathic scoliosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1988;229:107–13.
Oda I, Cunningham BW, Lee GA, et al. Biomechanical properties of anterior thoracolumbar multisegmental fixation: an analysis of construct stiffness and screw-rod strain. Spine. 2000;25(18):2303–11.
Odent T, Arlet V, Ouellet J, et al. Kyphectomy in myelomeningocele with a modified Dunn-McCarthy technique followed by an anterior inlayed strut graft. Eur Spine J. 2004;13(3):206–12.
Ogilvie J. Neurofibromatosis. In: Lonstein J, Winter R, Ogilvie J, editors. Moe’s textbook of scoliosis and other deformities. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1994. p. 33.
Olafsson Y, Odergren T, Persson HE, et al. Somatosensory testing in idiopathic scoliosis. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2002;44(2):130–2.
Olsfanger D, Jedeikin R, Metser U, et al. Acute normovolaemic haemodilution and idiopathic scoliosis surgery: effects on homologous blood requirements. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1993;21(4):429–31.
Omeroglu H, Ozekin O, Bicimoglu A. Measurement of vertebral rotation in idiopathic scoliosis using the Perdriolle torsionmeter: a clinical study on intraobserver and interobserver error. Eur Spine J. 1996;5(3):167–71.
Osebold WR. Stability of myelomeningocele spines treated with the Mayfield two-stage anterior and posterior fusion technique. Spine. 2000;25(11):1344–51.
Osebold WR, Mayfield JK, Winter RB, et al. Surgical treatment of paralytic scoliosis associated with myelomeningocele. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1982;64(6):841–56.
Ouellet JA, Johnston CE 2nd. Effect of grafting technique on the maintenance of coronal and sagittal correction in anterior treatment of scoliosis. Spine. 2002;27(19):2129–35; discussion 2135–2126.
Ouellet JA, LaPlaza J, Erickson MA, et al. Sagittal plane deformity in the thoracic spine: a clue to the presence of syringomyelia as a cause of scoliosis. Spine. 2003;28(18):2147–51.
Owange-Iraka JW, Harrison A, Warner JO. Lung function in congenital and idiopathic scoliosis. Eur J Pediatr. 1984;142(3):198–200.
Ozturk C, Alanay A, Ganiyusufoglu K, et al. Short-term X-ray results of posterior vertebral column resection in severe congenital kyphosis, scoliosis, and kyphoscoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(12):1054–7.
Ozturk C, Karadereler S, Ornek I, et al. The role of routine magnetic resonance imaging in the preoperative evaluation of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Int Orthop. 2010;34(4):543–6.
Padberg AM, Wilson-Holden TJ, Lenke LG, et al. Somatosensory- and motor-evoked potential monitoring without a wake-up test during idiopathic scoliosis surgery. An accepted standard of care. Spine. 1998;23(12):1392–400.
Pan Y, Lu GH, Kuang L, et al. Accuracy of thoracic pedicle screw placement in adolescent patients with severe spinal deformities: a retrospective study comparing drill guide template with free-hand technique. Eur Spine J. 2018;27(2):319–26.
Panjabi MM, Takata K, Goel V, et al. Thoracic human vertebrae. Quantitative three-dimensional anatomy. Spine. 1991;16(8):888–901.
Papastefanou SL, Henderson LM, Smith NJ, et al. Surface electrode somatosensory-evoked potentials in spinal surgery: implications for indications and practice. Spine. 2000;25(19):2467–72.
Parent S, Labelle H, Skalli W, et al. Thoracic pedicle morphometry in vertebrae from scoliotic spines. Spine. 2004;29(3):239–48.
Parent S, Labelle H, Skalli W, et al. Morphometric analysis of anatomic scoliotic specimens. Spine. 2002;27(21):2305–11.
Parisini P, Di Silvestre M, Greggi T, et al. Surgical correction of dystrophic spinal curves in neurofibromatosis. A review of 56 patients. Spine. 1999;24(21):2247–53.
Parsch D, Geiger F, Brocai DR, et al. Surgical management of paralytic scoliosis in myelomeningocele. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2001;10(1):10–7.
Pasquini G, Cecchi F, Bini C, et al. The outcome of a modified version of the Cheneau brace in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) based on SRS and SOSORT criteria: a retrospective study. Eur J Phys Rehabil Med. 2016;52(5):618–29.
Pastorelli F, Di Silvestre M, Plasmati R, et al. The prevention of neural complications in the surgical treatment of scoliosis: the role of the neurophysiological intraoperative monitoring. Eur Spine J. 2011;20(Suppl 1):S105–14.
Pastorelli F, Di Silvestre M, Vommaro F, et al. Intraoperative monitoring of somatosensory (SSEPs) and transcranial electric motor-evoked potentials (tce-MEPs) during surgical correction of neuromuscular scoliosis in patients with central or peripheral nervous system diseases. Eur Spine J. 2015;24(Suppl 7):931–6.
Pehrsson K, Larsson S, Oden A, et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with untreated scoliosis. A study of mortality, causes of death, and symptoms. Spine. 1992;17(9):1091–6.
Peleg I, Eldor A, Kahane I, et al. Altered structural and functional properties of myosins, from platelets of idiopathic scoliosis patients. J Orthop Res. 1989;7(2):260–5.
Perdriolle R. The torsion meter: a critical review. J Pediatr Orthop. 1991;11(6):789.
Peterson HA, Peterson LF. Hemivertebrae in identical twins with dissimilar spinal columns. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1967;49(5):938–42.
Philips MF, Dormans J, Drummond D, et al. Progressive congenital kyphosis: report of five cases and review of the literature. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1997;26(3):130–43.
Phillips WA, Hensinger RN. Control of blood loss during scoliosis surgery. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1988;(229):88–93.
Piasecki JO, Mahinpour S, Levine DB. Long-term follow-up of spinal fusion in spinal muscular atrophy. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1986;(207):44–54.
Pollack IF, Colak A, Fitz C, et al. Surgical management of spinal cord compression from plexiform neurofibromas in patients with neurofibromatosis 1. Neurosurgery. 1998;43(2):248–55; discussion 255–246.
Ponte A, Orlando G, Siccardi GL. The true ponte osteotomy: by the one who developed it. Spine Deform. 2018;6(1):2–11.
Pool RD. Congenital scoliosis in monozygotic twins. Genetically determined or acquired in utero? J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1986;68(2):194–6.
Potter BK, Kuklo TR, Lenke LG. Radiographic outcomes of anterior spinal fusion versus posterior spinal fusion with thoracic pedicle screws for treatment of Lenke Type I adolescent idiopathic scoliosis curves. Spine. 2005;30(16):1859–66.
Prahinski JR, Polly DW, McHale KA, et al. Occult intraspinal anomalies in congenital scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2000;20(1):59–63.
Pravda J, Ghelman B, Levine DB. Syringomyelia associated with congenital scoliosis. A case report. Spine. 1992;17(3):372–4.
Price CT, Scott DS, Reed FE Jr, et al. Nighttime bracing for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis with the Charleston bending brace. Preliminary report. Spine. 1990;15(12):1294–9.
Price CT, Scott DS, Reed FR Jr, et al. Nighttime bracing for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis with the Charleston Bending Brace: long-term follow-up. J Pediatr Orthop. 1997;17(6):703–7.
Privitera DM, Matsumoto H, Gomez JA, et al. Are breech rates for pedicle screws higher in the upper thoracic spine? Spine Deform. 2013;1(3):189–95.
Purkiss SB, Driscoll B, Cole WG, et al. Idiopathic scoliosis in families of children with congenital scoliosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2002;(401):27–31.
Qiao J, Xu L, Liu Z, et al. Surgical treatment of scoliosis in Marfan syndrome: outcomes and complications. Eur Spine J. 2016;25(10):3288–93.
Qiao J, Zhu Z, Zhu F, et al. Indication for preoperative MRI of neural axis abnormalities in patients with presumed thoracolumbar/lumbar idiopathic scoliosis. Eur Spine J. 2013;22(2):360–6.
Quinn RH, Murray JN, Pezold R, et al. Management of patients with orthopaedic implants undergoing dental procedures. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2017;25(7):e138–41.
Quinn RH, Murray JN, Pezold R, et al. The American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons appropriate use criteria for the management of patients with orthopaedic implants undergoing dental procedures. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2017;99(2):161–3.
Ramachandran M, Tsirikos AI, Lee J, et al. Whole-spine magnetic resonance imaging in patients with neurofibromatosis type 1 and spinal deformity. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2004;17(6):483–91.
Ramirez N, Johnston CE, Browne RH. The prevalence of back pain in children who have idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1997;79(3):364–8.
Ramirez N, Richards BS, Warren PD, et al. Complications after posterior spinal fusion in Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy. J Pediatr Orthop. 1997;17(1):109–14.
Ramo BA, Richards BS. Repeat surgical interventions following “definitive” instrumentation and fusion for idiopathic scoliosis: five-year update on a previously published cohort. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(14):1211–7.
Ramo BA, Roberts DW, Tuason D, et al. Surgical site infections after posterior spinal fusion for neuromuscular scoliosis: a thirty-year experience at a single institution. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2014;96(24):2038–48.
Rampersaud YR, Pik JH, Salonen D, et al. Clinical accuracy of fluoroscopic computer-assisted pedicle screw fixation: a CT analysis. Spine. 2005;30(7):E183–90.
Ramsay J, Joncas J, Gilbert G, et al. Is breast asymmetry present in girls with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis? Spine Deform. 2014;2(5):374–9.
Raux S, Kohler R, Garin C, et al. Tridimensional trunk surface acquisition for brace manufacturing in idiopathic scoliosis. Eur Spine J. 2014;23(Suppl 4):S419–23.
Reames DL, Smith JS, Fu KM, et al. Complications in the surgical treatment of 19, 360 cases of pediatric scoliosis: a review of the Scoliosis Research Society Morbidity and Mortality database. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2011;36(18):1484–91.
Reid L. Pathologic changes in the lungs in scoliosis. In: Zorab PA, editor. Scoliosis. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas; 1969. p. 67.
Reuber M, Schultz A, McNeill T, et al. Trunk muscle myoelectric activities in idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1983;8(5):447–56.
Richards BR, Emara KM. Delayed infections after posterior TSRH spinal instrumentation for idiopathic scoliosis: revisited. Spine. 2001;26(18):1990–6.
Richards BS. Lumbar curve response in type II idiopathic scoliosis after posterior instrumentation of the thoracic curve. Spine. 1992;17(8 Suppl):S282–6.
Richards BS. Measurement error in assessment of vertebral rotation using the Perdriolle torsionmeter. Spine. 1992;17(5):513–7.
Richards BS. Delayed infections following posterior spinal instrumentation for the treatment of idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995;77(4):524–9.
Richards BS, Sucato DJ, Johnston CE, et al. Right thoracic curves in presumed adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: which clinical and radiographic findings correlate with a preoperative abnormal magnetic resonance image? Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2010;35(20):1855–60.
Rideau Y, Glorion B, Delaubier A, et al. The treatment of scoliosis in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Muscle Nerve. 1984;7(4):281–6.
Rigo M, Jelacic M. Brace technology thematic series: the 3D Rigo Cheneau-type brace. Scoliosis Spinal Disord. 2017;12:10.
Riley MS, Lenke LG, Chapman TM Jr, et al. Clinical and radiographic outcomes after posterior vertebral column resection for severe spinal deformity with five-year follow-up. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2018;100(5):396–405.
Riseborough EJ, Wynne-Davies R. A genetic survey of idiopathic scoliosis in Boston, Massachusetts. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1973;55(5):974–82.
Risser JC. The Iliac apophysis; an invaluable sign in the management of scoliosis. Clin Orthop. 1958;11:111–9.
Rittoo DB, Morris P. Tracheal occlusion in the prone position in an intubated patient with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Anaesthesia. 1995;50(8):719–21.
Roberto R, Fritz A, Hagar Y, et al. The natural history of cardiac and pulmonary function decline in patients with duchenne muscular dystrophy. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2011;36(15):E1009–17.
Robin H, Damsin JP, Filipe G, et al. Spinal deformities in Marfan disease. Rev Chir Orthop Reparatrice Appar Mot. 1992;78(7):464–9.
Robins PR, Moe JH, Winter RB. Scoliosis in Marfan’s syndrome. Its characteristics and results of treatment in thirty-five patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1975;57(3):358–68.
Robinson CM, McMaster MJ. Juvenile idiopathic scoliosis. Curve patterns and prognosis in one hundred and nine patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1996;78(8):1140–8.
Robinson D, Galasko CS, Delaney C, et al. Scoliosis and lung function in spinal muscular atrophy. Eur Spine J. 1995;4(5):268–73.
Rogala EJ, Drummond DS, Gurr J. Scoliosis: incidence and natural history. A prospective epidemiological study. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1978;60(2):173–6.
Rowe DE, Bernstein SM, Riddick MF, et al. A meta-analysis of the efficacy of non-operative treatments for idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1997;79(5):664–74.
Ruf M, Harms J. Hemivertebra resection by a posterior approach: innovative operative technique and first results. Spine. 2002;27(10):1116–23.
Ruf M, Harms J. Posterior hemivertebra resection with transpedicular instrumentation: early correction in children aged 1 to 6 years. Spine. 2003;28(18):2132–8.
Ruf M, Letko L, Matis N, et al. Effect of anterior mobilization and shortening in the correction of rigid idiopathic thoracic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2013;38(26):E1662–8.
Rushton PR, Elmalky M, Tikoo A, et al. The effect of metal density in thoracic adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Eur Spine J. 2016;25(10):3324–30.
Sabato S, Rotman A, Robin GC, et al. Platelet aggregation abnormalities in idiopathic scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 1985;5(5):558–63.
Sahgal V, Shah A, Flanagan N, et al. Morphologic and morphometric studies of muscle in idiopathic scoliosis. Acta Orthop Scand. 1983;54(2):242–51.
Saito N, Ebara S, Ohotsuka K, et al. Natural history of scoliosis in spastic cerebral palsy. Lancet. 1998;351(9117):1687–92.
Saito T, Kawakami N, Tsuji T, et al. Three-dimensional analysis of hemimetameric segmental shift in congenital scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2018;38(4):217–22.
Salehi LB, Mangino M, De Serio S, et al. Assignment of a locus for autosomal dominant idiopathic scoliosis (IS) to human chromosome 17p11. Hum Genet. 2002;111(4–5):401–4.
Salem KM, Goodger L, Bowyer K, et al. Does transcranial stimulation for motor evoked potentials (TcMEP) worsen seizures in epileptic patients following spinal deformity surgery? Eur Spine J. 2016;25(10):3044–8.
Sales de Gauzy J, Accadbled F, Sarramon MF, et al. Prenatal sonographic diagnosis of the congenital dislocated spine: a case report. Spine. 2003;28(2):E41–4.
Salsano V, Montanaro A, Turturro F. Casting. In: Weinstein SL, editor. The pediatric spine: principles and practice. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p. 1257.
Samagh SP, Cheng I, Elzik M, et al. Kyphectomy in the treatment of patients with myelomeningocele. Spine J. 2011;11(3):e5–11.
Samdani AF, Ames RJ, Kimball JS, et al. Anterior vertebral body tethering for immature adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: one-year results on the first 32 patients. Eur Spine J. 2015;24(7):1533–9.
Samdani AF, Belin EJ, Bennett JT, et al. Major perioperative complications after spine surgery in patients with cerebral palsy: assessment of risk factors. Eur Spine J. 2016;25(3):795–800.
Samdani AF, Bennett JT, Ames RJ, et al. Reversible intraoperative neurophysiologic monitoring alerts in patients undergoing arthrodesis for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: what are the outcomes of surgery? J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2016;98(17):1478–83.
Samdani AF, Fine AL, Sagoo SS, et al. A patient with myelomeningocele: is untethering necessary prior to scoliosis correction? Neurosurg Focus. 2010;29(1):E8.
Samdani AF, Ranade A, Sciubba DM, et al. Accuracy of free-hand placement of thoracic pedicle screws in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: how much of a difference does surgeon experience make? Eur Spine J. 2010;19(1):91–5.
Samilson RL, Bechard R. Scoliosis in cerebral palsy: incidence, distribution of curve patterns, natural history, and thoughts on etiology. Curr Pract Orthop Surg. 1973;5:183.
Sanders AE, Andras LM, Sousa T, et al. Accelerated discharge protocol for posterior spinal fusion patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis decreases hospital postoperative charges 22. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2017;42(2):92–7.
Sanders AE, Baumann R, Brown H, et al. Selective anterior fusion of thoracolumbar/lumbar curves in adolescents: when can the associated thoracic curve be left unfused? Spine. 2003;28(7):706–13; discussion 714.
Sanders JO, D’Astous J, Fitzgerald M, et al. Derotational casting for progressive infantile scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2009;29(6):581–7.
Sanders JO, Herring JA, Browne RH. Posterior arthrodesis and instrumentation in the immature (Risser-grade-0) spine in idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995;77(1):39–45.
Sanders JO, Khoury JG, Kishan S, et al. Predicting scoliosis progression from skeletal maturity: a simplified classification during adolescence. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2008;90(3):540–53.
Sanders JO, Little DG, Richards BS. Prediction of the crankshaft phenomenon by peak height velocity. Spine. 1997;22(12):1352–6; discussion 1356–1357.
Sankar WN, Skaggs DL, Yazici M, et al. Lengthening of dual growing rods and the law of diminishing returns. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2011;36(10):806–9.
Sarwark JF. Kyphosis deformity in myelomeningocele. Orthop Clin North Am. 1999;30(3):451–5, viii–ix.
Schoenmakers MA, Gulmans VA, Gooskens RH, et al. Spinal fusion in children with spina bifida: influence on ambulation level and functional abilities. Eur Spine J. 2005;14(4):415–22.
Schreiber S, Parent EC, Moez EK, et al. The effect of Schroth exercises added to the standard of care on the quality of life and muscle endurance in adolescents with idiopathic scoliosis-an assessor and statistician blinded randomized controlled trial: “SOSORT 2015 Award Winner”. Scoliosis. 2015;10:24.
Schroerlucke SR, Akbarnia BA, Pawelek JB, et al. How does thoracic kyphosis affect patient outcomes in growing rod surgery? Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(15):1303–9.
Schulte TL, Liljenqvist U, Hierholzer E, et al. Spontaneous correction and derotation of secondary curves after selective anterior fusion of idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2006;31(3):315–21.
Schwartz DM, Auerbach JD, Dormans JP, et al. Neurophysiological detection of impending spinal cord injury during scoliosis surgery. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2007;89(11):2440–9.
Schwartz DM, Drummond DS, Ecker ML. Influence of rigid spinal instrumentation on the neurogenic motor evoked potential. J Spinal Disord. 1996;9(5):439–45.
Schwend RM, Hennrikus W, Hall JE, et al. Childhood scoliosis: clinical indications for magnetic resonance imaging. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995;77(1):46–53.
Segal LS, Wallach DM, Kanev PM. Potential complications of posterior spine fusion and instrumentation in patients with cerebral palsy treated with intrathecal baclofen infusion. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2005;30(8):E219–24.
Sengupta DK, Mehdian SH, McConnell JR, et al. Pelvic or lumbar fixation for the surgical management of scoliosis in duchenne muscular dystrophy. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2002;27(18):2072–9.
Senkoylu A, Luk KD, Wong YW, et al. Prognosis of spontaneous thoracic curve correction after the selective anterior fusion of thoracolumbar/lumbar (Lenke 5C) curves in idiopathic scoliosis. Spine J. 2014;14(7):1117–24.
Sewell MD, Malagelada F, Wallace C, et al. A preliminary study to assess whether spinal fusion for scoliosis improves carer-assessed quality of life for children with GMFCS level IV or V cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 2016;36(3):299–304.
Sewell MD, Wallace C, Malagelada F, et al. Does spinal fusion and scoliosis correction improve activity and participation for children with GMFCS level 4 and 5 cerebral palsy? Medicine (Baltimore). 2015;94(49):e1907.
Shaffer JW, Davy DT, Field GA, et al. The superiority of vascularized compared to nonvascularized rib grafts in spine surgery shown by biological and physical methods. Spine. 1988;(13):1150.
Shah SA, Dhawale AA, Oda JE, et al. Ponte osteotomies with pedicle screw instrumentation in the treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine Deform. 2013;1(3):196–204.
Shapiro F, Sethna N. Blood loss in pediatric spine surgery. Eur Spine J. 2004;13(Suppl 1):S6–17.
Shapiro F, Sethna N, Colan S, et al. Spinal fusion in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: a multidisciplinary approach. Muscle Nerve. 1992;15(5):604–14.
Shapiro F, Specht L. The diagnosis and orthopaedic treatment of childhood spinal muscular atrophy, peripheral neuropathy, Friedreich ataxia, and arthrogryposis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1993;75(11):1699–714.
Shapiro F, Zurakowski D, Bui T, et al. Progression of spinal deformity in wheelchair-dependent patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy who are not treated with steroids: coronal plane (scoliosis) and sagittal plane (kyphosis, lordosis) deformity. Bone Joint J. 2014;96-B(1):100–5.
Shapiro F, Zurakowski D, Sethna NF. Tranexamic acid diminishes intraoperative blood loss and transfusion in spinal fusions for duchenne muscular dystrophy scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2007;32(20):2278–83.
Shapiro J, Herring J. Congenital vertebral displacement. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1993;75(5):656–62.
Sharma S, Gao X, Londono D, et al. Genome-wide association studies of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis suggest candidate susceptibility genes. Hum Mol Genet. 2011;20(7):1456–66.
Sharrard WJ. Posterior iliopsoas transplantation in the treatment of paralytic dislocation of the hip. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1964;46:426–44.
Shaw BA, Watson TC, Merzel DI, et al. The safety of continuous epidural infusion for postoperative analgesia in pediatric spine surgery. J Pediatr Orthop. 1996;16(3):374–7.
Shen WJ, McDowell GS, Burke SW, et al. Routine preoperative MRI and SEP studies in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 1996;16(3):350–3.
Shi Z, Chen J, Wang C, et al. Comparison of thoracoscopic anterior release combined with posterior spinal fusion versus posterior-only approach with an all-pedicle screw construct in the treatment of rigid thoracic adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2015;28(8):E454–9.
Shono Y, Abumi K, Kaneda K. One-stage posterior hemivertebra resection and correction using segmental posterior instrumentation. Spine. 2001;26(7):752–7.
Shufflebarger HL, Clark CE. Prevention of the crankshaft phenomenon. Spine. 1991;16(8 Suppl):S409–11.
Shyy W, Wang K, Gurnett CA, et al. Evaluation of GPR50, hMel-1B, and ROR-alpha melatonin-related receptors and the etiology of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2010;30(6):539–43.
Siller TA, Dickson JH, Erwin WD. Efficacy and cost considerations of intraoperative autologous transfusion in spinal fusion for idiopathic scoliosis with predeposited blood. Spine. 1996;21(7):848–52.
Simonds AK, Carroll N, Branthwaite MA. Kyphoscoliosis as a cause of cardio-respiratory failure--pitfalls of diagnosis. Respir Med. 1989;83(2):149–50.
Simpson MB, Georgopoulos G, Eilert RE. Intraoperative blood salvage in children and young adults undergoing spinal surgery with predeposited autologous blood: efficacy and cost effectiveness. J Pediatr Orthop. 1993;13(6):777–80.
Singh K, Samartzis D, An HS. Neurofibromatosis type I with severe dystrophic kyphoscoliosis and its operative management via a simultaneous anterior-posterior approach: a case report and review of the literature. Spine J. 2005;5(4):461–6.
Singla A, Bennett JT, Sponseller PD, et al. Results of selective thoracic versus nonselective fusion in Lenke type 3 curves. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2014;39(24):2034–41.
Sink EL, Karol LA, Sanders J, et al. Efficacy of perioperative halo-gravity traction in the treatment of severe scoliosis in children. J Pediatr Orthop. 2001;21(4):519–24.
Sirois JL 3rd, Drennan JC. Dystrophic spinal deformity in neurofibromatosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 1990;10(4):522–6.
Sitoula P, Verma K, Holmes L Jr, et al. Prediction of curve progression in idiopathic scoliosis: validation of the Sanders skeletal maturity staging system. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2015;40(13):1006–13.
Skaar DD, Park T, Swiontkowski MF, et al. Cost-effectiveness of antibiotic prophylaxis for dental patients with prosthetic joints: comparisons of antibiotic regimens for patients with total hip arthroplasty. J Am Dent Assoc. 2015;146(11):830–9.
Skaggs DL, Guillaume T, El-Hawary R, et al. Early onset scoliosis consensus statement, SRS Growing Spine Committee, 2015. Spine Deform. 2015;3(2):107.
Skaggs DL, Samuelson MA, Hale JM, et al. Complications of posterior iliac crest bone grafting in spine surgery in children. Spine. 2000;25(18):2400–2.
Skogland LB, Miller JA. Growth related hormones in idiopathic scoliosis. An endocrine basis for accelerated growth. Acta Orthop Scand. 1980;51(5):779–80.
Slover JD, Phillips MS, Iorio R, et al. Is routine antibiotic prophylaxis cost effective for total joint replacement patients? J Arthroplast. 2015;30(4):543–6.
Smania N, Picelli A, Romano M, et al. Neurophysiological basis of rehabilitation of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Disabil Rehabil. 2008;30(10):763–71.
Smith AD, Koreska J, Moseley CF. Progression of scoliosis in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1989;71(7):1066–74.
Smith CA, Tuan RS. Human PAX gene expression and development of the vertebral column. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1994;(302):241–50.
Smith JT, Gollogly S, Dunn HK. Simultaneous anterior-posterior approach through a costotransversectomy for the treatment of congenital kyphosis and acquired kyphoscoliotic deformities. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2005;87(10):2281–9.
Smith JT, Novais E. Treatment of Gibbus deformity associated with myelomeningocele in the young child with use of the vertical expandable prosthetic titanium rib (VEPTR): a case report. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2010;92(12):2211–5.
Smith MD. Congenital scoliosis of the cervical or cervicothoracic spine. Orthop Clin North Am. 1994;25(2):301–10.
Smith RM, Emans JB. Sitting balance in spinal deformity. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1992;17(9):1103–9.
Smorgick Y, Millgram MA, Anekstein Y, et al. Accuracy and safety of thoracic pedicle screw placement in spinal deformities. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2005;18(6):522–6.
Song KM, Little DG. Peak height velocity as a maturity indicator for males with idiopathic scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2000;20(3):286–8.
Song TB, Kim YH, Oh ST, et al. Prenatal ultrasonographic diagnosis of congenital kyphosis due to anterior segmentation failure. Asia Oceania J Obstet Gynaecol. 1994;20(1):31–3.
Spencer GS, Zorab PA. Spinal muscle in scoliosis. Part 1. Histology and histochemistry. J Neurol Sci. 1976;30(1):137–42.
Sponseller PD. Syringomyelia and Chiari I malformation presenting with juvenile scoliosis as sole manifestation. J Spinal Disord. 1992;5(2):237–9; discussion 239–244.
Sponseller PD, Ahn NU, Ahn UM, et al. Osseous anatomy of the lumbosacral spine in Marfan syndrome. Spine. 2000;25(21):2797–802.
Sponseller PD, Hobbs W, Riley LH 3rd, et al. The thoracolumbar spine in Marfan syndrome. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995;77(6):867–76.
Sponseller PD, LaPorte DM, Hungerford MW, et al. Deep wound infections after neuromuscular scoliosis surgery: a multicenter study of risk factors and treatment outcomes. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2000;25(19):2461–6.
Sponseller PD, Sethi N, Cameron DE, et al. Infantile scoliosis in Marfan syndrome. Spine. 1997;22(5):509–16.
Sponseller PD, Shah SA, Abel MF, et al. Infection rate after spine surgery in cerebral palsy is high and impairs results: multicenter analysis of risk factors and treatment. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2010;468(3):711–6.
Sponseller PD, Young AT, Sarwark JF, et al. Anterior only fusion for scoliosis in patients with myelomeningocele. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1999;(364):117–24.
Spoonamore MJ, Dolan LA, Weinstein SL. Use of the Rosenberger brace in the treatment of progressive adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2004;29(13):1458–64.
Sriram K, Bobechko WP, Hall JE. Surgical management of spinal deformities in spina bifida. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1972;54(4):666–76.
Stagnara P. Cranial traction using the "Halo" of Rancho Los Amigos. Rev Chir Orthop Reparatrice Appar Mot. 1971;57(4):287–300.
Stark A, Saraste H. Anterior fusion insufficient for scoliosis in myelomeningocele. 8 children 2-6 years after the Zielke operation. Acta Orthop Scand. 1993;64(1):22–4.
Stella G, Ascani E, Cervellati S, et al. Surgical treatment of scoliosis associated with myelomeningocele. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 1998;8(Suppl 1):22–5.
Stephen JP, Sullivan MR, Hicks RG, et al. Cotrel-dubousset instrumentation in children using simultaneous motor and somatosensory evoked potential monitoring. Spine. 1996;21(21):2450–7.
Stoker GE, Lenke LG, Dorward IG. Posterior vertebral column resection for the treatment of dystrophic kyphosis associated with type-1 neurofibromatosis: a case report and review of the literature. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(26):E1659–64.
Storer SK, Vitale MG, Hyman JE, et al. Correction of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis using thoracic pedicle screw fixation versus hook constructs. J Pediatr Orthop. 2005;25(4):415–9.
Stricker SJ, Sher JS. Freeze-dried cortical allograft in posterior spinal arthrodesis: use with segmental instrumentation for idiopathic adolescent scoliosis. Orthopedics. 1997;20(11):1039–43.
Sturm PF, Chung R, Bomze SR. Hemivertebra in monozygotic twins. Spine. 2001;26(12):1389–91.
Sucato DJ. Management of severe spinal deformity: scoliosis and kyphosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2010;35(25):2186–92.
Sucato DJ, Duchene C. The position of the aorta relative to the spine: a comparison of patients with and without idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2003;85-A(8):1461–9.
Sucato DJ, Duey-Holtz A, Elerson E, et al. Postoperative analgesia following surgical correction for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a comparison of continuous epidural analgesia and patient-controlled analgesia. Spine. 2005;30(2):211–7.
Sucato DJ, Erken YH, Davis S, et al. Prone thoracoscopic release does not adversely affect pulmonary function when added to a posterior spinal fusion for severe spine deformity. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2009;34(8):771–8.
Sucato DJ, Hedequist D, Karol LA. Operative correction of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis in male patients. A radiographic and functional outcome comparison with female patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004;86-A(9):2005–14.
Sucato DJ, Kassab F, Dempsey M. Analysis of screw placement relative to the aorta and spinal canal following anterior instrumentation for thoracic idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2004;29(5):554–9; discussion 559.
Sucato DJ, Lovejoy JF, Agrawal S, et al. Postoperative ketorolac does not predispose to pseudoarthrosis following posterior spinal fusion and instrumentation for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2008;33(10):1119–24.
Sucato DJ, Poppino K, AS T, et al. Neuromonitoring for AIS: a 20-year analysis of AIS patient incidence of critical changes and predictive factors to define patients at risk at a single center. International Meeting of Advanced Spine Techniques, Capetown, South Africa; 2017.
Sudo H, Ito M, Kaneda K, et al. Long-term outcomes of anterior dual-rod instrumentation for thoracolumbar and lumbar curves in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a twelve to twenty-three-year follow-up study. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2013;95(8):e49.
Suh SW, Sarwark JF, Vora A, et al. Evaluating congenital spine deformities for intraspinal anomalies with magnetic resonance imaging. J Pediatr Orthop. 2001;21(4):525–31.
Sui WY, Ye F, Yang JL. Efficacy of tranexamic acid in reducing allogeneic blood products in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis surgery. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2016;17:187.
Suk SI. Pedicle screw instrumentation for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: the insertion technique, the fusion levels and direct vertebral rotation. Clin Orthop Surg. 2011;3(2):89–100.
Suk SI, Chung ER, Kim JH, et al. Posterior vertebral column resection for severe rigid scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2005;30(14):1682–7.
Suk SI, Kim WJ, Lee SM, et al. Thoracic pedicle screw fixation in spinal deformities: are they really safe? Spine. 2001;26(18):2049–57.
Suk SI, Lee CK, Chung SS. Comparison of Zielke ventral derotation system and Cotrel-Dubousset instrumentation in the treatment of idiopathic lumbar and thoracolumbar scoliosis. Spine. 1994;19(4):419–29.
Suk SI, Lee CK, Kim WJ, et al. Segmental pedicle screw fixation in the treatment of thoracic idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1995;20(12):1399–405.
Suk SI, Lee SM, Chung ER, et al. Selective thoracic fusion with segmental pedicle screw fixation in the treatment of thoracic idiopathic scoliosis: more than 5-year follow-up. Spine. 2005;30(14):1602–9.
Sun Z, Qiu G, Zhao Y, et al. Lowest instrumented vertebrae selection for selective posterior fusion of moderate thoracolumbar/lumbar idiopathic scoliosis: lower-end vertebra or lower-end vertebra+1? Eur Spine J. 2014;23(6):1251–7.
Sussman M. Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2002;10(2):138–51.
Sussman MD. Advantage of early spinal stabilization and fusion in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J Pediatr Orthop. 1984;4(5):532–7.
Sussman MD. Treatment of scoliosis in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1985;27(4):522–4.
Suzuki S, Kasahara Y, Yamamoto S, et al. Three-dimensional spinal deformity in scoliosis associated with cerebral palsy and with progressive muscular dystrophy. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1993;18(15):2290–4.
Szoke G, Lipton G, Miller F, et al. Wound infection after spinal fusion in children with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 1998;18(6):727–33.
Tabaraud F, Boulesteix JM, Moulies D, et al. Monitoring of the motor pathway during spinal surgery. Spine. 1993;18(5):546–50.
Takaso M, Nakazawa T, Imura T, et al. Surgical management of severe scoliosis with high risk pulmonary dysfunction in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: patient function, quality of life and satisfaction. Int Orthop. 2010;34(5):695–702.
Tallroth K, Malmivaara A, Laitinen ML, et al. Lumbar spine in Marfan syndrome. Skelet Radiol. 1995;24(5):337–40.
Tanner J. Growth and endocrinology of the adolescent. In: Gardner L, editor. Endocrine and Genetic diseases of childhood. Phildelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1975. p. 14.
Tanner J, Whitehouse RH, Takaishi M. Standards from birth to maturity for height, weight, height velocity, and weight velocity: British children. Parts I and II. Arch Dis Child. 1966;(41):454.
Tao F, Zhao Y, Wu Y, et al. The effect of differing spinal fusion instrumentation on the occurrence of postoperative crankshaft phenomenon in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2010;23(8):e75–80.
Tauchi R, Kawakami N, Castro MA, et al. Long-term surgical outcomes after early definitive spinal fusion for early-onset scoliosis with neurofibromatosis type 1 at mean follow-up of 14 years. J Pediatr Orthop. 2020;40(1):42–7.
Tauchi R, Tsuji T, Cahill PJ, et al. Reliability analysis of cobb angle measurements of congenital scoliosis using X-ray and 3D-CT images. Eur J Orthop Surg Traumatol. 2016;26(1):53–7.
Tello C, Bersusky E, Francheri-Wilson A, et al. Severe infantile socliosis treated by repetitive distractions followed by definitive arthrodesis. Eur Spine J. 2005, in press.
Terek RM, Wehner J, Lubicky JP. Crankshaft phenomenon in congenital scoliosis: a preliminary report. J Pediatr Orthop. 1991;11(4):527–32.
Theiss SM, Smith MD, Winter RB. The long-term follow-up of patients with Klippel-Feil syndrome and congenital scoliosis. Spine. 1997;22(11):1219–22.
Theologis AA, Tabaraee E, Lin T, et al. Type of bone graft or substitute does not affect outcome of spine fusion with instrumentation for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2015;40(17):1345–51.
Theroux J, Stomski N, Hodgetts CJ, et al. Prevalence of low back pain in adolescents with idiopathic scoliosis: a systematic review. Chiropr Man Ther. 2017;25:10.
Thirumala PD, Crammond DJ, Loke YK, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of motor evoked potentials to detect neurological deficit during idiopathic scoliosis correction: a systematic review. J Neurosurg Spine. 2017;26(3):374–83.
Thometz JG, Simon SR. Progression of scoliosis after skeletal maturity in institutionalized adults who have cerebral palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1988;70(9):1290–6.
Thompson GH, Akbarnia BA, Kostial P, et al. Comparison of single and dual growing rod techniques followed through definitive surgery: a preliminary study. Spine. 2005;30(18):2039–44.
Thompson RM, Hubbard EW, Jo CH, et al. Brace success is related to curve type in patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2017;99(11):923–8.
Thomsen M, Lang RD, Carstens C. Results of kyphectomy with the technique of Warner and Fackler in children with myelodysplasia. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2000;9(3):143–7.
Thomsen MN, Schneider U, Weber M, et al. Scoliosis and congenital anomalies associated with Klippel-Feil syndrome types I-III. Spine. 1997;22(4):396–401.
Thuet ED, Winscher JC, Padberg AM, et al. Validity and reliability of intraoperative monitoring in pediatric spinal deformity surgery: a 23-year experience of 3436 surgical cases. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2010;35(20):1880–6.
Tomlinson RJ Jr, Wolfe MW, Nadall JM, et al. Syringomyelia and developmental scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 1994;14(5):580–5.
Torode I, Godette G. Surgical correction of congenital kyphosis in myelomeningocele. J Pediatr Orthop. 1995;15(2):202–5.
Tortori-Donati P, Fondelli MP, Rossi A, et al. Segmental spinal dysgenesis: neuroradiologic findings with clinical and embryologic correlation. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 1999;20(3):445–56.
Trenga AP, Singla A, Feger MA, et al. Patterns of congenital bony spinal deformity and associated neural anomalies on X-ray and magnetic resonance imaging. J Child Orthop. 2016;10(4):343–52.
Trivedi JM, Thomson JD. Results of Charleston bracing in skeletally immature patients with idiopathic scoliosis. J Pediatr Orthop. 2001;21(3):277–80.
Tsirikos AI, Chang WN, Dabney KW, et al. Comparison of one-stage versus two-stage anteroposterior spinal fusion in pediatric patients with cerebral palsy and neuromuscular scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2003;28(12):1300–5.
Tsirikos AI, Chang WN, Dabney KW, et al. Comparison of parents’ and caregivers' satisfaction after spinal fusion in children with cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop. 2004;24(1):54–8.
Tsirikos AI, Mains E. Surgical correction of spinal deformity in patients with cerebral palsy using pedicle screw instrumentation. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2012;25(7):401–8.
Tsirikos AI, McMaster MJ. Infantile developmental thoracolumbar kyphosis with segmental subluxation of the spine. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2010;92(3):430–5.
Tsirikos AI, Ramachandran M, Lee J, et al. Assessment of vertebral scalloping in neurofibromatosis type 1 with plain radiography and MRI. Clin Radiol. 2004;59(11):1009–17.
Tsirikos AI, Saifuddin A, Noordeen MH. Spinal deformity in neurofibromatosis type-1: diagnosis and treatment. Eur Spine J. 2005;14(5):427–39.
Tubbs RS, Rutledge SL, Kosentka A, et al. Chiari I malformation and neurofibromatosis type 1. Pediatr Neurol. 2004;30(4):278–80.
Turgut M, Yenisey C, Uysal A, et al. The effects of pineal gland transplantation on the production of spinal deformity and serum melatonin level following pinealectomy in the chicken. Eur Spine J. 2003;12(5):487–94.
Turi M, Johnston CE 2nd, Richards BS. Anterior correction of idiopathic scoliosis using TSRH instrumentation. Spine. 1993;18(4):417–22.
Turturro F, Rocca B, Gumina S, et al. Impaired primary hemostasis with normal platelet function in Duchenne muscular dystrophy during highly-invasive spinal surgery. Neuromuscul Disord. 2005;15(8):532–40.
Urban MK, Beckman J, Gordon M, et al. The efficacy of antifibrinolytics in the reduction of blood loss during complex adult reconstructive spine surgery. Spine. 2001;26(10):1152–6.
Urbanski W, Jurasz W, Wolanczyk M, et al. Increased radiation but no benefits in pedicle screw accuracy with navigation versus a freehand technique in scoliosis surgery. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2018;476(5):1020–7.
Vaccaro AR, Rizzolo SJ, Allardyce TJ, et al. Placement of pedicle screws in the thoracic spine. Part I: morphometric analysis of the thoracic vertebrae. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995;77(8):1193–9.
Vaccaro AR, Rizzolo SJ, Balderston RA, et al. Placement of pedicle screws in the thoracic spine. Part II: an anatomical and radiographic assessment. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1995;77(8):1200–6.
Velasco MV, Colin AA, Zurakowski D, et al. Posterior spinal fusion for scoliosis in duchenne muscular dystrophy diminishes the rate of respiratory decline. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2007;32(4):459–65.
Venn G, Mehta MH, Mason RM. Solubility of spinal ligament collagen in idiopathic and secondary scoliosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1983;(177):294–301.
Verma K, Sitoula P, Gabos P, et al. Simplified skeletal maturity scoring system: learning curve and methods to improve reliability. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2014;39(26):E1592–8.
Viau M, Tarbox BB, Wonglertsiri S, et al. Thoracic pedicle screw instrumentation using the “Funnel Technique”: part 2. Clinical experience. J Spinal Disord Tech. 2002;15(6):450–3.
Viehweger E, Giacomelli MC, Glard Y, et al. Congenital dislocated spine: implications for orthopaedic management. J Pediatr Orthop. 2009;29(4):362–8.
Viola RW, King HA, Adler SM, et al. Delayed infection after elective spinal instrumentation and fusion. A retrospective analysis of eight cases. Spine. 1997;22(20):2444–50; discussion 2450–2441.,.
Violas P, Chapuis M, Bracq H. Local autograft bone in the surgical management of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2004;29(2):189–92.
Vira S, Husain Q, Jalai C, et al. The interobserver and intraobserver reliability of the Sanders classification versus the Risser stage. J Pediatr Orthop. 2017;37(4):e246–9.
Vitale MG, Choe JC, Hwang MW, et al. Use of ketorolac tromethamine in children undergoing scoliosis surgery. An analysis of complications. Spine J. 2003;3(1):55–62.
Vitale MG, Matsumoto H, Bye MR, et al. A retrospective cohort study of pulmonary function, radiographic measures, and quality of life in children with congenital scoliosis: an evaluation of patient outcomes after early spinal fusion. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2008;33(11):1242–9.
Vitale MG, Matsumoto H, Feinberg N, et al. Paper#35 proximal rib vs proximal spine anchors in growing rods: a multicenter prospective cohort study. Spine Deform. 2015;6(3):626–7.
Vitale MG, Skaggs DL, Pace GI, et al. Best practices in intraoperative neuromonitoring in spine deformity surgery: development of an intraoperative checklist to optimize response. Spine Deform. 2014;2(5):333–9.
Vivas AC, Pahys JM, Jain A, et al. Early and late hospital readmissions after spine deformity surgery in children with cerebral palsy. Spine Deform. 2020;8(3):507–16.
Waisman M, Saute M. Thoracoscopic spine release before posterior instrumentation in scoliosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1997;(336):130–6.
Wajchenberg M, Lazar M, Cavacana N, et al. Genetic aspects of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis in a family with multiple affected members: a research article. Scoliosis. 2010;5:7.
Wang F, Xu XM, Wei XZ, et al. Spontaneous thoracic curve correction after selective posterior fusion of thoracolumbar/lumbar curves in Lenke 5C adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015;94(29):e1155.
Wang T, Zeng B, Xu J, et al. Radiographic evaluation of selective anterior thoracolumbar or lumbar fusion for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Eur Spine J. 2008;17(8):1012–8.
Wang WW, Man GC, Wong JH, et al. Abnormal response of the proliferation and differentiation of growth plate chondrocytes to melatonin in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Int J Mol Sci. 2014;15(9):17100–14.
Wang Y, Fei Q, Qiu G, et al. Anterior spinal fusion versus posterior spinal fusion for moderate lumbar/thoracolumbar adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: a prospective study. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2008;33(20):2166–72.
Wang Z, Fu C, Leng J, et al. Treatment of dystrophic scoliosis in neurofibromatosis Type 1 with one-stage posterior pedicle screw technique. Spine J. 2015;15(4):587–95.
Ward JP, Feldman DS, Paul J, et al. Wound closure in nonidiopathic scoliosis: does closure matter? J Pediatr Orthop. 2017;37(3):166–70.
Ward WT, Wenger DR, Roach JW. Surgical correction of myelomeningocele scoliosis: a critical appraisal of various spinal instrumentation systems. J Pediatr Orthop. 1989;9(3):262–8.
Warner WC Jr, Fackler CD. Comparison of two instrumentation techniques in treatment of lumbar kyphosis in myelodysplasia. J Pediatr Orthop. 1993;13(6):704–8.
Watanabe K, Uno K, Suzuki T, et al. Risk factors for complications associated with growing-rod surgery for early-onset scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2013;38(8):E464–8.
Watkins RGT, Hussain N, Freeman BJ, et al. Anterior instrumentation for thoracolumbar adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: do structural interbody grafts preserve sagittal alignment better than morselized rib autografts? Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2006;31(20):2337–42.
Weimann RL, Gibson DA, Moseley CF, et al. Surgical stabilization of the spine in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 1983;8(7):776–80.
Weinstein S. Natural history of idiopathic scoliosis: Back pain at 50-year follow-up. New York: Scoliosis Research Society; 1998.
Weinstein S. Untreated adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: psychosocial characteristics at 50-year follow-up. New York: Scoliosis Research Society; 1998.
Weinstein SL, Dolan LA, Wright JG, et al. Effects of bracing in adolescents with idiopathic scoliosis. N Engl J Med. 2013;369(16):1512–21.
Weinstein SL, Ponseti IV. Curve progression in idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1983;65(4):447–55.
Werdnig G. Zwei fruhim famile hereditare Fall von progressiver Muskelatrophie unter dem Bild der Dystrophie, aber auf neurotischer Grundlage. Arch Psychiatr. 1891;22:237.
Wilde PH, Upadhyay SS, Leong JC. Deterioration of operative correction in dystrophic spinal neurofibromatosis. Spine. 1994;19(11):1264–70.
Williams BA, Matsumoto H, McCalla DJ, et al. Development and initial validation of the Classification of Early-Onset Scoliosis (C-EOS). J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2014;96(16):1359–67. https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.M.00253.
Wimmer C, Gluch H. Management of postoperative wound infection in posterior spinal fusion with instrumentation. J Spinal Disord. 1996;9(6):505–8.
Winter R. Congenital spinal deformity. In: Lonstein J, Winter R, Ogilvie J, editors. Moe’s text book of scoliosis and other spinal deformities. Phildelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1994. p. 257.
Winter R. Marfan’s syndrome. In: Lonstein J, Winter R, Ogilvie J, editors. Moe’s text book of scoliosis and other spinal deformities. Phildelphia: W.B. Saunders; 1994. p. 547.
Winter R, Moe JH, Lonstein J. A review of family histories in patients with congenital spinal deformities. Orthop Trans. 1983;(7):32.
Winter RB. Congenital scoliosis. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1973;(93):75–94.
Winter RB. The idiopathic double thoracic curve pattern. Its recognition and surgical management. Spine. 1989;14(12):1287–92.
Winter RB, Denis F. The King V curve pattern. Its analysis and surgical treatment. Orthop Clin North Am. 1994;25(2):353–62.
Winter RB, Lonstein JE. Congenital scoliosis with posterior spinal arthrodesis T2-L3 at age 3 years with 41-year follow-up. A case report. Spine. 1999;24(2):194–7.
Winter RB, Lonstein JE, Boachie-Adjei O. Congenital spinal deformity. Instr Course Lect. 1996;45:117–27.
Winter RB, Lonstein JE, Heithoff KB, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging evaluation of the adolescent patient with idiopathic scoliosis before spinal instrumentation and fusion. A prospective, double-blinded study of 140 patients. Spine. 1997;22(8):855–8.
Winter RB, Moe JH. The results of spinal arthrodesis for congenital spinal deformity in patients younger than five years old. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1982;64(3):419–32.
Winter RB, Moe JH, Bradford DS, et al. Spine deformity in neurofibromatosis. A review of one hundred and two patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1979;61(5):677–94.
Winter RB, Moe JH, Lonstein JE. Posterior spinal arthrodesis for congenital scoliosis. An analysis of the cases of two hundred and ninety patients, five to nineteen years old. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1984;66(8):1188–97.
Winter RB, Moe JH, Wang JF. Congenital kyphosis. Its natural history and treatment as observed in a study of one hundred and thirty patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1973;55(2):223–56.
Winter RB, Smith MD, Lonstein JE. Congenital scoliosis due to unilateral unsegmented bar: posterior spine fusion at age 12 months with 44-year follow-up. Spine. 2004;29(3):E52–5.
Winter RB, Turek-Shay LA. Twenty-eight-year follow-up of anterior and posterior fusion for congenital kyphosis. A case report. Spine. 1997;22(18):2183–7.
Winter S. Preoperative assessment of the child with neuromuscular scoliosis. Orthop Clin North Am. 1994;25(2):239–45.
Wirth B, Rudnik-Schoneborn S, Hahnen E, et al. Prenatal prediction in families with autosomal recessive proximal spinal muscular atrophy (5q11.2-q13.3): molecular genetics and clinical experience in 109 cases. Prenat Diagn. 1995;15(5):407–17.
Wise CA, Barnes R, Gillum J, et al. Localization of susceptibility to familial idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2000;25(18):2372–80.
Wise CA, Gao X, Shoemaker S, et al. Understanding genetic factors in idiopathic scoliosis, a complex disease of childhood. Curr Genomics. 2008;9(1):51–9.
Wong AYL, Samartzis D, Cheung PWH, et al. How common is back pain and what biopsychosocial factors are associated with back pain in patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis? Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2019;477(4):676–86.
Wong HK, Hee HT, Yu Z, et al. Results of thoracoscopic instrumented fusion versus conventional posterior instrumented fusion in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis undergoing selective thoracic fusion. Spine. 2004;29(18):2031–8; discussion 2039.
Wong MS, Cheng JC, Lam TP, et al. The effect of rigid versus flexible spinal orthosis on the clinical efficacy and acceptance of the patients with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2008;33(12):1360–5.
Worthington V, Shambaugh P. Nutrition as an environmental factor in the etiology of idiopathic scoliosis. J Manip Physiol Ther. 1993;16(3):169–73.
Wyatt MP, Barrack RL, Mubarak SJ, et al. Vibratory response in idiopathic scoliosis. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1986;68(5):714–8.
Wynne-Davies R. Familial (idiopathic) scoliosis. A family survey. J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1968;50(1):24–30.
Wynne-Davies R. Congenital vertebral anomalies: aetiology and relationship to spina bifida cystica. J Med Genet. 1975;12(3):280–8.
Xu H, Qiu G, Wu Z, et al. Expression of transforming growth factor and basic fibroblast growth factor and core protein of proteoglycan in human vertebral cartilaginous endplate of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 2005;30(17):1973–8.
Xu W, Yang S, Wu X, et al. Hemivertebra excision with short-segment spinal fusion through combined anterior and posterior approaches for congenital spinal deformities in children. J Pediatr Orthop B. 2010;19(6):545–50.
Yagi M, Hasegawa J, Nagoshi N, et al. Does the intraoperative tranexamic acid decrease operative blood loss during posterior spinal fusion for treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis? Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2012;37(21):E1336–42.
Yalcin N, Bar-on E, Yazici M. Impingement of spinal cord by dislocated rib in dystrophic scoliosis secondary to neurofibromatosis type 1: radiological signs and management strategies. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2008;33(23):E881–6.
Yang J, Skaggs DL, Chan P, et al. Raising mean arterial pressure alone restores 20% of intraoperative neuromonitoring losses. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2018;43(13):890–4.
Yang J, Sponseller P, Thompson GH, et al. Risk factors for rod fracture in growing rod surgery. J Child Orthop. 2009;3(2):147.
Yasuda YL, Bowman K, Hsu JD. Mobile arm supports: criteria for successful use in muscle disease patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1986;67(4):253–6.
Yaszay B, Bastrom TP, Bartley CE, et al. The effects of the three-dimensional deformity of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis on pulmonary function. Eur Spine J. 2017;26(6):1658–64.
Yaszay B, O'Brien M, Shufflebarger HL, et al. Efficacy of hemivertebra resection for congenital scoliosis: a multicenter retrospective comparison of three surgical techniques. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2011;36(24):2052–60.
Yazici M, Asher MA, Hardacker JW. The safety and efficacy of Isola-Galveston instrumentation and arthrodesis in the treatment of neuromuscular spinal deformities. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2000;82(4):524–43.
Yngve D. Abdominal reflexes. J Pediatr Orthop. 1997;17(1):105–8.
Yoshihara H, Kawakami N, Matsuyama Y, et al. A histomorphologic study of scoliosis in pinealectomized chickens. Spine. 2005;30(20):2244–51.
Youkilis AS, Quint DJ, McGillicuddy JE, et al. Stereotactic navigation for placement of pedicle screws in the thoracic spine. Neurosurgery. 2001;48(4):771–8; discussion 778–779.
Zaarour C, Engelhardt T, Strantzas S, et al. Effect of low-dose ketamine on voltage requirement for transcranial electrical motor evoked potentials in children. Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2007;32(22):E627–30.
Zaina F, Negrini S, Atanasio S, et al. Specific exercises performed in the period of brace weaning can avoid loss of correction in Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis (AIS) patients: Winner of SOSORT’s 2008 Award for Best Clinical Paper. Scoliosis. 2009;4:8.
Zamecnik J, Krskova L, Hacek J, et al. Etiopathogenesis of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis: expression of melatonin receptors 1A/1B, calmodulin and estrogen receptor 2 in deep paravertebral muscles revisited. Mol Med Rep. 2016;14(6):5719–24.
Zana E, Chalard F, Mazda K, et al. An atypical case of segmental spinal dysgenesis. Pediatr Radiol. 2005;35(9):914–7.
Zapata K, Parent EC, Sucato D. Immediate effects of scoliosis-specific corrective exercises on the cobb angle after one week and after one year of practice. Scoliosis Spinal Disord. 2016;11(Suppl 2):36.
Zarzycki D, Rymarczyk A, Bakalarek B, et al. Surgical treatment of congenital vertebral displacement Type A in the sagittal plane only: a retrospective study involving eleven cases. Spine. 2002;27(1):72–7.
Zeller RD, Ghanem I, Dubousset J. The congenital dislocated spine. Spine. 1996;21(10):1235–40.
Zetterberg C, Aniansson A, Grimby G. Morphology of the paravertebral muscles in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Spine. 1983;8(5):457–62.
Zhang W, Sha S, Xu L, et al. The prevalence of intraspinal anomalies in infantile and juvenile patients with “presumed idiopathic” scoliosis: a MRI-based analysis of 504 patients. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2016;17:189.
Zindrick MR, Knight GW, Sartori MJ, et al. Pedicle morphology of the immature thoracolumbar spine. Spine. 2000;25(21):2726–35.
Zindrick MR, Wiltse LL, Doornik A, et al. Analysis of the morphometric characteristics of the thoracic and lumbar pedicles. Spine. 1987;12(2):160–6.
Beauchamp EC, Anderson RCE, Vitale MG. Modern Surgical management of early onset and adolescent idiopathic scoliosis. Neurosurgery. 2019;84(2):291–304. https://doi.org/10.1093/neuros/nyy267. PMID: 30016462.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Rathjen, K. (2022). Scoliosis in Children. In: Noe, C.E. (eds) Multidisciplinary Spine Care. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04990-3_28
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04990-3_28
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-04989-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-04990-3
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)