Keywords

12.1 Introduction

Trees bind carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and store carbon in their wood. The carbon content of a tree is approximated by half the dry weight of the tree itself. Therefore, trees are seen as individuals able to storage carbon, and for this reason, also trees outside forests (TOF) have gained attention (e.g., Guo et al., 2014; Russo et al., 2014; Schnell et al., 2015; Speak et al., 2020). The assumption that trees are a net CO2 sink led to planting trees in cities as part of their climate protection plans. However, assessments on their real potential to act as carbon sinks are difficult to carry out, because they require, among others, knowing the total emissions caused by planting and maintenance during the entire life cycle. Some completed assessments have shown such plantations have limited effectiveness in carbon stocking (e.g., McPherson & Kendall, 2014). For stocking purposes, trees are more efficient by moving carbon from the atmosphere into the forest ecosystem.

The role of forest in climate change mitigation has been widely recognised in recent decades. Countries that report on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and removals, after signing the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and following the subsequent agreements, need to estimate carbon sequestration related to land use, land use changes and forestry. Five terrestrial carbon pools are relevant for the estimation of carbon stocks and carbon stock changes under the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol (IPCC, 2003): soil, litter, belowground and aboveground biomass, and deadwood. National forest inventories are important data sources for estimating forest carbon stock (e.g., Breidenbach et al., 2021; Brown, 2002; Mäkipää et al., 2008). The second Italian NFI (INFC2005) estimated the carbon stock stored within four out of the five pools, i.e., belowground biomass was not included. The comprehensive assessment confirmed the major role of soil in European forests, as soil stored 57.6% of Italian forest organic carbon in the four pools, followed by the aboveground living biomass (38.1%). Together, deadwood and litter stored 4.3% of carbon (Gasparini & Di Cosmo, 2015; Gasparini et al., 2013).

Extensive field campaigns for sampling soil and following laboratory analyses for carbon content measurements are very expensive. Furthermore, estimating the change requires enormous effort because the expected changes are small compared to the high carbon stock already present in soils (Schrumpf et al., 2008), especially when the period between the two assessments is not long (e.g., Conen et al., 2003). Considering the short period between the two forest inventories, INFC2015 updated the estimates of carbon stored within the aboveground living biomass and the deadwood biomass. This living biomass is represented by woody vegetation consisting of trees with DBH ≥ 4.5 cm, small trees (seedlings and saplings typical of regeneration processes) and shrubs taller than 50 cm. Deadwood is composed of standing dead trees (trees with DBH ≥ 4.5 cm), remaining stumps (diameter ≥ 9.5 cm) and deadwood lying on the ground (section diameter ≥ 9.5 cm, length between the end sections ≥ 9.5 cm); together standing dead trees, stumps and deadwood lying on the ground are considered coarse woody debris.

The amount of carbon annually sequestrated by trees from the atmosphere was assessed estimating Forest annual increment in biomass. The carbon content in forest stands, however, also varies annually due to natural mortality and the removal of utilised trees. For this reason, the carbon sink quantified as the annual increase of carbon in living trees minus the carbon content of removed trees cannot be considered a net annual accumulation of carbon (Tabacchi et al., 2010).

12.2 Carbon Stock in the Aboveground Living Biomass

Table 12.1 shows the carbon stock stored in the woody vegetation as represented by all individuals taller than 50 cm, for the inventory categories of Forest and Total. Tables 12.2 and 12.3 show similar data for the forest types. Trees, small trees (seedlings and saplings) and shrubs store 539.3 million carbon tonnes, 59.4 tonnes per hectare on average. Table 12.4 shows the estimates on the carbon stored by trees for the inventory categories of Forest and for Total Forest. Table 12.5 shows the carbon stored by small trees and Table 12.6 shows the amount stored by shrubs. At www.inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC similar statistics for the forest types are available. The data in the cited tables indicate that 96.8% of the carbon in the living biomass is stored by trees; small trees and shrubs store 1.7% and 1.5% of the total, respectively. Only in a few regions do small trees or shrubs store at least 3% of total aboveground living biomass carbon. Carbon in small trees exceeds that threshold in Umbria (5.7%), Marche (4.7%) and Molise (4.6%). Carbon in shrubs exceeds it in Molise (3.9%) and Sardegna (5.3%). If we consider the joint contribution of small trees and shrubs, 3% of the overall living biomass is exceeded in five additional regions: Emilia-Romagna, Lazio, Campania, Puglia and Basilicata. Figure 12.1 shows the carbon stock in the regions differentiating the parts due to trees and to small trees and shrubs together.

Table 12.1 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in the aboveground biomass by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro di carbonio nella fitomassa epigea totale per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 12.2 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in the aboveground biomass by Tall trees forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro di carbonio nella fitomassa epigea totale per le categorie forestali dei Boschi alti
Table 12.3 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in the aboveground biomass by Plantations forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro di carbonio nella fitomassa epigea totale per le categorie forestali degli Impianti di arboricoltura da legno
Table 12.4 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in the aboveground tree biomass by Forest inventory category /  Valori totali e per ettaro di carbonio nella fitomassa arborea epigea per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 12.5 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in small trees biomass by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro di carbonio totale della rinnovazione per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 12.6 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in shrubs biomass by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro di carbonio totale degli arbusti per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Fig. 12.1
figure 1

Carbon in trees, small trees (regeneration) and shrubs in Italian Forest (X-axis was limited to improve readibility; exceeding values are given in numbers) / Contenuto di carbonio negli alberi, nella rinnovazione e negli arbusti nel Bosco italiano (l'asse delle ascisse è stato limitato per migliorare la leggibilità; i valori eccedenti sono mostrati in numero)

Figure 12.2 shows the carbon stock in the aboveground living biomass in the Tall trees forest types.

Fig. 12.2
figure 2

Carbon stock in the aboveground living biomass (trees, small trees and shrubs) of Tall trees forest types / Contenuto di carbonio negli alberi, nella rinnovazione e negli arbusti delle categorie forestali dei Boschi alti

Considering the forest types with more than 40 million carbon tonnes, we can note (cf. Chap. 7) that Beech forest, Temperate oaks and Mediterranean oaks forests and Other deciduous broadleaved forest cover wide areas (more than 1 million hectare each) and account for large timber volume (generally over 100 million cubic metres, except Temperate oaks forest with 94.4 million cubic metres). On the contrary, Norway spruce and Chestnut forest types store a great deal of carbon mainly because they are rich in biomass, as they do not spread over very large areas (586.7 thousand hectares for Norway spruce and 778.5 thousand hectares for Chestnut forest).

12.3 Carbon Stock in Deadwood

Table 12.7 shows the overall carbon stored in coarse woody debris in the forest inventory categories and for Total Forest. Tables 12.8 and 12.9 report similar information for the forest types. The three deadwood components considered by INFC2015 store altogether 29.8 million carbon tonnes, 3.3 tonnes per hectare on average. Table 12.10 shows the statistics for the standing dead trees, Table 12.11 shows those for stumps and Table 12.12 shows those for lying deadwood. The statistics for the three components in the forest types are available at www.inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC.

Table 12.7 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in coarse woody debris by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro del carbonio nel legno morto grosso totale per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 12.8 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in coarse woody debris by Tall trees forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro del carbonio nel legno morto grosso totale per le categorie forestali dei Boschi alti
Table 12.9 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in coarse woody debris by Plantations forest type / Valori totali e per ettaro di carbonio nel legno morto grosso totale per le categorie forestali degli Impianti di arboricoltura da legno
Table 12.10 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in standing dead trees by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro di carbonio negli alberi morti in piedi per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 12.11 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in stumps by Forest inventory category/Valori totali e per ettaro di carbonio nelle ceppaie residue per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Table 12.12 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in lying deadwood by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro di carbonio nel legno morto grosso a terra per le categorie inventariali del Bosco

Figure 12.3 reveals that 57.5% of coarse woody debris carbon stock is in standing dead trees; lying deadwood stores 33.2% of coarse woody debris carbon and stumps store 9.3%.

Fig. 12.3
figure 3

Carbon stock in coarse woody debris in Forest / Contenuto di carbonio nelle componenti del legno morto grosso, nel Bosco

Figure 12.4 shows the carbon stock in the three deadwood components for the Tall trees forest types.

Fig. 12.4
figure 4

Carbon stock in the Tall trees forest types by deadwood component / Contenuto di carbonio nelle categorie forestali dei Boschi alti per componente del legno morto

Lying deadwood is the main component in carbon storing in four forest types: Larch and Stone pine, Norway spruce, Fir and Hygrophilous forests. In these categories lying deadwood stores between 41.5% (Norway Spruce forest) and 49.4% (Hygrophilous forests) of total coarse woody debris carbon stock. In all other forest types, most carbon is stored in the standing dead trees component, which generally accounts for more than 50%, except Scots pine and Mountain pine forest (48.2%) and Beech forest (47.8%). The average national value for carbon stored by stumps is exceeded in five forest types: Larch and Stone pine, Norway spruce, Fir, Beech and Cork oak forests, whose values range from 12.8% (Cork oak forest) to 23.3% (Norway spruce forests). Figure 12.5 shows the carbon stock in the regions by deadwood components.

Fig. 12.5
figure 5

Carbon stock in coarse woody debris by components, in the regions / Contenuto di carbonio nel legno morto per componente, nelle regioni

As a general picture, standing dead trees are the main source of carbon stock, with percentages ranging from 49.9% (Marche) to 70.7% (Toscana), but in Valle d’Aosta and in Trentino the main deadwood component for carbon stock is lying deadwood (55.1% and 43.3%, respectively) while in Alto Adige both stumps (36.7%) and lying deadwood (36.5%) store more carbon than standing dead trees (26.7%).

12.4 Overall Carbon Stock in the Aboveground Living and Deadwood Biomass

Together, woody vegetation taller than 50 cm and coarse woody debris store 569.1 million carbon tonnes. Carbon in trees and shrubs constitutes 94.8% of the total while deadwood comprises 5.2%. Figure 12.6 shows the cumulative percent of carbon in the aboveground living biomass and in coarse woody debris, in the regions.

Fig. 12.6
figure 6

Carbon stock in aboveground living biomass (trees and shrubs higher than 50 cm) and in coarse woody debris, in the regions / Contenuto di carbonio nella fitomassa epigea totale (alberi e arbusti più alti di 50 cm) e nel legno morto grosso totale, nelle regioni

The percentage of coarse woody debris is higher in the central-north regions. Its mean national value of 5.2% is exceeded in eight regions from the Alps to Toscana, except Alto Adige (5.0%) and Veneto (4.5%), which show values slightly lower. Marche and Calabria are the only two remaining regions whose coarse woody debris percent value is over 4%.

12.5 Annual Variation of Tree Carbon Stock

The annual volume increment of Forest, estimated in 37.8 million cubic metres (cf. Chap. 7), represents approximately 13.5 million carbon tonnes, 49.5 million tonnes CO2 equivalent. One hectare Forest stores 1.5 carbon tonnes per year and binds from the atmosphere 5.5 tonnes CO2. Table 12.13 shows the estimates on carbon annually stored in wood by tree growth for the inventory categories of Forest. At www.inventarioforestale.org/statistiche_INFC the estimates for the forest types are available. Figure 12.7 shows the amount of carbon stored in the regions, total and per hectare.

Table 12.13 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock annual increase in aboveground tree biomass due to growth, by Forest inventory category / Valori totali e per ettaro dell'incremento annuo di carbonio nella fitomassa arborea epigea dovuto all’accrescimento, per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Fig. 12.7
figure 7

Carbon annually stored by trees growth, total and per hectare (to improve readability, very long bars have been limited and true values are given in numbers) / Carbonio accumulato annualmente per accrescimento degli alberi, totale e per ettaro (per migliorare la lettura, è stata limitata la lunghezza di barre molto lunghe e i valori reali sono indicati con numero)

A certain amount of carbon stock in the aboveground living biomass is annually removed from Forest due to felling. Table 12.14 shows the statistics on the carbon removed in the inventory categories of Forest. In Italy, almost 3.2 million carbon tonnes are annually removed from Forest, 11.7 million CO2 tonnes equivalent. On average, 0.3 carbon tonnes are removed annually from one hectare Forest, 1.1 CO2 tonnes equivalent. Figure 12.8 displays the data reported in the Table 12.14.

Table 12.14 Total value and value per hectare of carbon stock in trees (stem, large and small branches) utilised in the 12 months before the survey / Valori totali e per ettaro del carbonio in fusto, rami grossi e ramaglia degli alberi utilizzati nei 12 mesi precedenti il rilievo, per le categorie inventariali del Bosco
Fig. 12.8
figure 8

Tree carbon removed annually from Forest with utilisations, total and per hectare (to improve readability, very long bars have been limited and true values are given in numbers) / Carbonio totale e per ettaro asportato annualmente dal Bosco con le utilizzazioni (per migliorare la lettura, è stata limitata la lunghezza di barre molto lunghe e i valori reali sono indicati con numero)

Figure 12.9 shows the amount of carbon stocked by trees every year and that extracted after felling.

Fig. 12.9
figure 9

Carbon annually stored by trees growth and removed with utilisations (to improve readability, very long bars have been limited and true values are given in numbers) / Carbonio fissato annualmente per accrescimento degli alberi e carbonio asportato con le utilizzazioni annue (per migliorare la lettura, è stata limitata la lunghezza di barre molto lunghe e i valori reali sono indicati con numero)

For the whole country, 23.4% of carbon stock annually stored by trees growth is removed. Although the comparison was made not considering the natural mortality, which is not estimated by INFC, the strong positive balance confirms that Italian forests act as sinks. Among the regions, the balance is rather variable, ranging from 0.3% in Molise to 54.8% in Umbria.