Abstract
Omega-3 (ω3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) are well-known essential nutrients for vertebrates. A recent study identifies a high number of ωx desaturase sequences in a variety of invertebrates; consequently, the long-term consensus that solely marine microbes account for the ω3 LC-PUFA production has to be revised by accepting that numerous abundant invertebrates have the autochthonous capacity to make significant contributions. Even many fish species appear capable of producing even DHA; it deserves further research of why the endogenous biosynthesis does not meet the corresponding demands. Moreover, it has to be evaluated if there are means to increase this biosynthesis by dietary or breeding means. The role of epigenetics in biosynthesis of LC-PUFAs is still in its infancy. However, emerging information on miRNAs indicates that they are central in regulating the biosynthesis of LC-PUFAs. The recent identification of miRNAs in the LC-PUFA biosynthesis is promising, and it can be expected that the catalog of miRNAs as well as target genes and pathway steps will be enlarged. Further epigenetic pathways will also move into the focus of scientific interest.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
fads1, fads2: fatty acid desaturase 1, encoding FADS1 (Δ5 desaturase), and fatty acid desaturase 2, encoding FADS2 (Δ6 desaturase). FADS2 is named so because it was thought to convert only ω6 FAs but actually converts also some others. It is obligatory to build the longer chain ω3 FAs from other simpler FAs (Guillou et al. 2003).
- 2.
For more details, →AAN III “Fish Oil Replacement—Terrestrial Oils.”
- 3.
Elovl1 elongates saturated and monounsaturated C20-C26, elovl2 C20-C22 PUFAs, elovl3 saturated and unsaturated C16-C22, elovl5 C18-C20 PUFAs, elovl6 C12-C16, elovl7 saturated and unsaturated C16-C22, elovl4 synthesizes C≥26 (Monroig et al. 2010). Recent studies on invertebrate species have reported a variety of novel ELOVL classes. For example, two novel ELOVL classes (ELOVL A and B) were found in the order Actinaria by transcriptome assembly analysis of Actinia tenebrosa, Telematactis sp., and Nemanthus annamensis (Surm et al. 2018). Two novel ELOVL classes (ELOVL9 and 10) have also been identified in rotifers in the genus Brachionus (Lee et al. 2019). Phylogenetic analysis revealed a novel ELOVL class (ELOVL11) in Tigriopus (Lee et al. (2020a), references added). The exact function of ELOVL11 remains to be determined. Moreover, two elovl8 genes have been identified in rabbitfish, which are unique to teleosts. Only ELOVL8B retains the ability to elongate C18 and C20 PUFAs to longer-chain FAs (Fig. 28.9) (Wen et al. 2020).
- 4.
Insulin-induced gene 1 plays an important role in the SREBP-mediated regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis: by binding to the sterol-sensing domain of SCAP (SREBP cleavage activating protein), it makes the SCAP/SREBP complex stay longer in the ER, thus prohibiting SCAP from carrying activated SREBP to the Golgi complex.
- 5.
Sterol regulatory element-binding proteins are transcription factors that bind to the sterol regulatory element DNA and are indirectly required for cholesterol biosynthesis and for uptake and fatty acid biosynthesis (Murray et al. 2009).
- 6.
Extract taken with permission from Springer Nature.
References
Bell MV, Tocher DR (2009) Biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids in aquatic ecosystems: general pathways and new directions. In: Kainz M, Brett MT, Arts MT (eds) Lipids in aAquatic eEcosystems. Springer, New York, pp 211–236. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-89366-2_9
Bell MV, Henderson RJ, Sargent JR (1986) The role of polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish. Comp Biochem Physiol Part B Biochem Mol Biol 83(4):711–719. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-0491(86)90135-5
Bell JG, Dick JR, McVicar AH, Sargent JR, Thompson KD (1993) Dietary sunflower, linseed and fish oils affect phospholipid fatty acid composition, development of cardiac lesions, phospholipase activity and eicosanoid production in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 49(3):665–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/0952-3278(93)90075-8
Betancor MB, Oboh A, Ortega A, Mourente G, Navarro JC, de la Gándara F, Tocher DR, Monroig Ó (2020) Molecular and functional characterisation of a putative elovl4 gene and its expression in response to dietary fatty acid profile in Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus). Comp Biochem Phys B 240:110372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2019.110372
Boyen J, Fink P, Mensens C, Hablützel PI, De Troch M (2020) Fatty acid bioconversion in harpacticoid copepods in a changing environment: a transcriptomic approach. Philos Trans R Soc B 375(1804):20190645. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0645
Budge SM, Devred E, Forget MH, Stuart V, Trzcinski MK, Sathyendranath S, Platt T (2014) Estimating concentrations of essential omega-3 fatty acids in the ocean: supply and demand. ICES J Mar Sci 71(7):1885–1893. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsu003
Caramujo M-J, Boschker HTS, Admiraal W (2008) Fatty acid profiles of algae mark the development and composition of harpacticoid copepods. Freshw Biol 53(1):77–90. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01868.x
Castro LFC, Tocher DR, Monroig Ó (2016) Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in chordates: insights into the evolution of Fads and Elovl gene repertoire. Prog Lipid Res 62:25–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2016.01.001
Chen C, Sun B, Li X, Li P, Guan W, Bi Y, Pan Q (2013) N-3 essential fatty acids in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus: quantification of optimum requirement of dietary linolenic acid in juvenile fish. Aquaculture 416–417:99–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2013.09.003
Chen C, Guan W, Xie Q, Chen G, He X, Zhang H, Guo W, Chen F, Tan Y, Pan Q (2018a) n-3 essential fatty acids in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus: bioconverting LNA to DHA is relatively efficient and the LC-PUFA biosynthetic pathway is substrate limited in juvenile fish. Aquaculture 495:513–522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2018.06.023
Chen C, Zhang J, Zhang M, You C, Liu Y, Wang S, Li Y (2018b) miR-146a is involved in the regulation of vertebrate LC-PUFA biosynthesis by targeting elovl5 as demonstrated in rabbitfish Siganus canaliculatus. Gene 676:306–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2018.08.063
Chen C, Wang S, Zhang M, Chen B, You C, Xie D, Liu Y, Monroig Ó, Tocher DR, Waiho K, Li Y (2019) miR-24 is involved in vertebrate LC-PUFA biosynthesis as demonstrated in marine teleost Siganus canaliculatus. BBA Mol Cell Biol Lipids 1864(5):619–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2019.01.010
Datsomor AK, Olsen RE, Zic N, Madaro A, Bones AM, Edvardsen RB, Wargelius A, Winge P (2019) CRISPR/Cas9-mediated editing of Δ5 and Δ6 desaturases impairs Δ8-desaturation and docosahexaenoic acid synthesis in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.). Sci Rep 9(1):16888. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-53316-w
De Troch M, Boeckx P, Cnudde C, Van Gansbeke D, Vanreusel A, Vincx M, Caramujo MJ (2012) Bioconversion of fatty acids at the basis of marine food webs: insights from a compound-specific stable isotope analysis. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 465:53–67. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps09920
Ding J, Yang D, Wang H, Zuo R, Qi S, Han L, Chang Y (2019) Cloning, characterization and transcription analysis of fatty acyl desaturase (Δ6Fad-like) and elongase (Elovl4-like, Elove5-like) during embryos development of Strongylocentrotus intermedius. Aquac Res 50(12):3483–3492. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.14316
Doi M, Toledo JD, Golez MSN, De los Santos M, Ohno A (1997) Preliminary investigation of feeding performance of larvae of early red-spotted grouper, Epinephelus coioides, reared with mixed zooplankton. Hydrobiologia 358:259–263. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003193121532
Ferraz RB, Kabeya N, Lopes-Marques M, Machado AM, Ribeiro RA, Salaro AL, Ozório R, Castro LFC, Monroig Ó (2019) A complete enzymatic capacity for long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis is present in the Amazonian teleost tambaqui, Colossoma macropomum. Comp Biochem Phys B 227:90–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2018.09.003
Fink P, Windisch HS (2019) The essential omega-3 fatty acid EPA affects expression of genes involved in the metabolism of omega-6-derived eicosanoids in Daphnia magna. Hydrobiologia 846(1):5–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-018-3675-z
Fonseca-Madrigal J, Navarro JC, Hontoria F, Tocher DR, Martínez-Palacios CA, Monroig Ó (2014) Diversification of substrate specificities in teleostei Fads2: characterization of Δ4 and Δ6Δ5 desaturases of Chirostoma estor. J Lipid Res 55(7):1408–1419. https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.M049791
Garrido D, Kabeya N, Betancor MB, Pérez JA, Acosta NG, Tocher DR, Rodríguez C, Monroig Ó (2019a) Functional diversification of teleost Fads2 fatty acyl desaturases occurs independently of the trophic level. Sci Rep 9(1):11199. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47709-0
Garrido D, Kabeya N, Hontoria F, Navarro JC, Reis DB, Martín MV, Rodríguez C, Almansa E, Monroig Ó (2019b) Methyl-end desaturases with Δ12 and ω3 regioselectivities enable the de novo PUFA biosynthesis in the cephalopod Octopus vulgaris. BBA Mol Cell Biol Lipids 1864(8):1134–1144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2019.04.012
Ghioni C, Tocher DR, Bell MV, Dick JR, Sargent JR (1999) Low C18 to C20 fatty acid elongase activity and limited conversion of stearidonic acid, 18:4(n-3), to eicosapentaenoic acid, 20:5(n-3), in a cell line from the turbot, Scophthalmus maximus. BBA Mol Cell Biol Lipids 1437(2):170–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1388-1981(99)00010-4
Giri SS, Graham J, Hamid NKA, Donald JA, Turchini GM (2016) Dietary micronutrients and in vivo n-3 LC-PUFA biosynthesis in Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 452:416–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.05.022
Goedkoop W, Demandt M, Ahlgren G (2007) Interactions between food quantity and quality (long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations) effects on growth and development of Chironomus riparius. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 64(3):425–436. https://doi.org/10.1139/F07-016
Gregory MK, Collins RO, Tocher DR, James MJ, Turchini GM (2016) Nutritional regulation of long-chain PUFA biosynthetic genes in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Br J Nutr 115(10):1721–1729. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114516000830
Guillou H, Rioux V, Catheline D, Thibault JN, Bouriel M, Jan S, D’Andrea S, Legrand P (2003) Conversion of hexadecanoic acid to hexadecenoic acid by rat Δ6-desaturase. J Lipid Res 44(3):450–454. https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.C200019-JLR200
Hixson SM, Arts MT (2016) Climate warming is predicted to reduce omega-3, long-chain, polyunsaturated fatty acid production in phytoplankton. Glob Change Biol 22(8):2744–2755. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13295
Hixson SM, Parrish CC, Xue X, Wells JS, Collins SA, Anderson DM, Rise ML (2017) Growth performance, tissue composition, and gene expression responses in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) fed varying levels of different lipid sources. Aquaculture 467:76–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.04.011
Izquierdo MS, Robaina L, Juárez-Carrillo E, Oliva V, Hernández-Cruz CM, Afonso JM (2008) Regulation of growth, fatty acid composition and delta 6 desaturase expression by dietary lipids in gilthead seabream larvae (Sparus aurata). Fish Physiol Biochem 34(2):117–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10695-007-9152-7
Kabeya N, Chiba M, Haga Y, Satoh S, Yoshizaki G (2017a) Cloning and functional characterization of fads2 desaturase and elovl5 elongase from Japanese flounder Paralichthys olivaceus. Comp Biochem Phys B 214:36–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2017.09.002
Kabeya N, Sanz-Jorquera A, Carboni S, Davie A, Oboh A, Monroig Ó (2017b) Biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids in sea urchins: molecular and functional characterisation of three fatty acyl desaturases from Paracentrotus lividus (Lamark 1816). PLoS One 12(1):e0169374. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0169374
Kabeya N, Fonseca MM, Ferrier DEK, Navarro JC, Bay LK, Francis DS, Tocher DR, Castro LFC, Monroig Ó (2018a) Genes for de novo biosynthesis of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are widespread in animals. Sci Adv 4(5):eaar6849. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aar6849
Kabeya N, Yevzelman S, Oboh A, Tocher DR, Monroig Ó (2018b) Essential fatty acid metabolism and requirements of the cleaner fish, ballan wrasse Labrus bergylta: defining pathways of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis. Aquaculture 488:199–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2018.01.039
Kabeya N, Gür İ, Oboh A, Evjemo JO, Malzahn AM, Hontoria F, Navarro JC, Monroig Ó (2020) Unique fatty acid desaturase capacities uncovered in Hediste diversicolor illustrate the roles of aquatic invertebrates in trophic upgrading. Philos Trans R Soc B 375(1804):20190654. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0654
Karapanagiotidis IT, Bell MV, Little DC, Yakupitiyage A (2007) Replacement of dietary fish oils by alpha-linolenic acid-rich oils lowers omega 3 content in tilapia flesh. Lipids 42(6):547–559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-007-3057-1
Kreeger KE, Kreeger DA, Langdon CJ, Lowry RR (1991) The nutritional value of Artemia and Tigriopus californicus (Baker) for two Pacific mysid species, Metamysidopsis elongata (Holmes) and Mysidopsis intii (Holmquist). J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 148(2):147–158. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0981(91)90079-C
Kuah M-K, Jaya-Ram A, Shu-Chien AC (2015) The capacity for long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid synthesis in a carnivorous vertebrate: functional characterisation and nutritional regulation of a Fads2 fatty acyl desaturase with Δ4 activity and an Elovl5 elongase in striped snakehead (Channa striata). Biochim Biophys Acta 1851(3):248–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.12.012
Leaver MJ, Bautista JM, Björnsson BT, Jönsson E, Krey G, Tocher DR, Torstensen BE (2008) Towards fish lipid nutrigenomics: current state and prospects for fin-fish aquaculture. Rev Fish Sci 16:73–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/10641260802325278
Lee M-C, Park JC, Yoon D-S, Choi H, Kim H-J, Shin K-H, Hagiwara A, Han J, Park HG, Lee J-S (2019) Genome-wide characterization and expression of the elongation of very long chain fatty acid (Elovl) genes and fatty acid profiles in the alga (Tetraselmis suecica) fed marine rotifer Brachionus koreanus. Comp Biochem Phys D 30:179–185
Lee MC, Choi BS, Kim MS, Yoon DS, Park JC, Kim S, Lee JS (2020a) An improved genome assembly and annotation of the Antarctic copepod Tigriopus kingsejongensis and comparison of fatty acid metabolism between T. kingsejongensis and the temperate copepod T. japonicus. Comp Biochem Phys D 35:100703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbd.2020.100703
Lee MC, Choi H, Park JC, Yoon DS, Lee Y, Hagiwara A, Park HG, Shin KH, Lee JS (2020b) A comparative study of food selectivity of the benthic copepod Tigriopus japonicus and the pelagic copepod Paracyclopina nana: a genome-wide identification of fatty acid conversion genes and nitrogen isotope investigation. Aquaculture 521:734930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.734930
Li Y, Hu C, Zheng Y, Xa X, Xu W, Wang S, Wz C, Zw S, Huang J (2008) The effects of dietary fatty acids on liver fatty acid composition and Δ6-desaturase expression differ with ambient salinities in Siganus canaliculatus. Comp Biochem Physiol B 151(2):183–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2008.06.013
Li Y, Monroig Ó, Zhang L, Wang S, Zheng X, Dick JR, You C, Tocher DR (2010) Vertebrate fatty acyl desaturase with Δ4 activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107(39):16840–16845. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1008429107
Li FJ, Lin X, Lin SM, Chen WY, Guan Y (2016) Effects of dietary fish oil substitution with linseed oil on growth, muscle fatty acid and metabolism of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquac Nutr 22(3):499–508. https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.12270
Li S, Monroig Ó, Wang T, Yuan Y, Carlos Navarro J, Hontoria F, Liao K, Tocher DR, Mai K, Xu W, Ai Q (2017) Functional characterization and differential nutritional regulation of putative Elovl5 and Elovl4 elongases in large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea). Sci Rep 7(1):2303. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-02646-8
Li Y, Wen Z, You C, Xie Z, Tocher DR, Zhang Y, Wang S, Li Y (2020) Genome wide identification and functional characterization of two LC-PUFA biosynthesis elongase (elovl8) genes in rabbitfish (Siganus canaliculatus). Aquaculture 522:735127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735127
Liao IC, Su HM, Chang EY (2001) Techniques in finfish larviculture in Taiwan. Aquaculture 200(1):1–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0044-8486(01)00692-5
Lin Z, Hao M, Huang Y, Zou W, Rong H, Wen X (2018) Cloning, tissue distribution and nutritional regulation of a fatty acyl Elovl4-like elongase in mud crab, Scylla paramamosain (Estampador, 1949). Comp Biochem Phys B 217:70–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2017.12.010
Liu H, Zhang H, Zheng H, Wang S, Guo Z, Zhang G (2014) PUFA biosynthesis pathway in marine scallop Chlamys nobilis Reeve. J Agric Food Chem 62(51):12384–12391. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf504648f
Lovern JA (1935) Fat metabolism in fishes. VI. The fats of some plankton crustacea. Biochem J 29(4):847–849. https://doi.org/10.1042/bj0290847
Monroig Ó, Kabeya N (2018) Desaturases and elongases involved in polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in aquatic invertebrates: a comprehensive review. Fish Sci 84(6):911–928. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12562-018-1254-x
Monroig Ó, Rotllant J, Cerdá-Reverter JM, Dick JR, Figueras A, Tocher DR (2010) Expression and role of Elovl4 elongases in biosynthesis of very long-chain fatty acids during zebrafish Danio rerio early embryonic development. BBA Mol Cell Biol Lipids 1801(10):1145–1154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2010.06.005
Monroig Ó, Wang S, Zhang L, You C, Tocher DR, Li Y (2012) Elongation of long-chain fatty acids in rabbitfish Siganus canaliculatus: cloning, functional characterisation and tissue distribution of Elovl5- and Elovl4-like elongases. Aquaculture 350-353:63–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2012.04.017
Monroig Ó, Tocher DR, Navarro JC (2013) Biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids in marine invertebrates: recent advances in molecular mechanisms. Mar Drugs 11(10):3998–4018. https://doi.org/10.3390/md11103998
Monroig Ó, Tocher DR, Castro LFC (2018) Polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis and metabolism in fish. In: Burdge GC (ed) Polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism. AOCS Press, New York, pp 31–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811230-4.00003-X
Morais S, Mourente G, Martínez A, Gras N, Tocher DR (2015) Docosahexaenoic acid biosynthesis via fatty acyl elongase and Δ4-desaturase and its modulation by dietary lipid level and fatty acid composition in a marine vertebrate. BBA Mol Cell Biol Lipids 1851(5):588–597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2015.01.014
Murray RK, Bender DA, Botham KM, Kennelly PJ, Rodwell VW, Weil PA (2009) Harper’s illustrated biochemistry, 28th edn. McGraw-Hill Medical, New York
Nielsen BLH, van Someren GH, Rayner TA, Hansen BW (2020) Biochemical adaptation by the tropical copepods Apocyclops royi and Pseudodiaptomus annandalei to a PUFA-poor brackish water habitat. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 655:77–89. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps13536
Nielsen BLH, Gréve HVS, Hansen BW (2021) Cultivation success and fatty acid composition of the tropical copepods Apocyclops royi and Pseudodiaptomus annandalei fed on monospecific diets with varying PUFA profiles. Aquac Res 52(3):1127–1138. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.14970
Oboh A, Betancor MB, Tocher DR, Monroig Ó (2016) Biosynthesis of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the African catfish Clarias gariepinus: molecular cloning and functional characterisation of fatty acyl desaturase (fads2) and elongase (elovl2) cDNAs. Aquaculture 462:70–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.05.018
Oboh A, Kabeya N, Carmona-Antoñanzas G, Castro LFC, Dick JR, Tocher DR, Monroig Ó (2017a) Two alternative pathways for docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) biosynthesis are widespread among teleost fish. Sci Rep 7(1):3889. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04288-2
Oboh A, Navarro JC, Tocher DR, Monroig Ó (2017b) Elongation of very long-chain (>C24) fatty acids in Clarias gariepinus: cloning, functional characterization and tissue expression of elovl4 elongases. Lipids. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-017-4289-3
Pan Y-J, Souissi A, Sadovskaya I, Hansen BW, Hwang J-S, Souissi S (2017) Effects of cold selective breeding on the body length, fatty acid content, and productivity of the tropical copepod Apocyclops royi (Cyclopoida, Copepoda). J Plankton Res 39(6):994–1003. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbx041
Park WJ, Kothapalli KSD, Lawrence P, Tyburczy C, Brenna JT (2009) An alternate pathway to long-chain polyunsaturates: the FADS2 gene product Δ8-desaturates 20:2n-6 and 20:3n-3. J Lipid Res 50(6):1195–1202. https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.M800630-JLR200
Parzanini C, Colombo SM, Kainz MJ, Wacker A, Parrish CC, Arts MT (2020) Discrimination between freshwater and marine fish using fatty acids: ecological implications and future perspectives. Environ Rev 28(4):546–559. https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2020-0031
Pereira SL, Leonard AE, Mukerji P (2003) Recent advances in the study of fatty acid desaturases from animals and lower eukaryotes. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 68(2):97–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0952-3278(02)00259-4
Rahmati R, Esmaeili Fereidouni A, Rouhi A, Agh N (2020) Effects of different diets on population growth and fatty acids composition in cyclopoid copepod, Acanthocyclops trajani (Mirabdullayev and Defaye, 2002): a potential supplementary live food for freshwater fish larvae. Iran J Fish Sci 19(3):1447–1462. https://doi.org/10.22092/ijfs.2019.120729
Ran Z, Xu J, Liao K, Li S, Chen S, Yan X (2018) Biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the razor clam Sinonovacula constricta: characterization of Δ5 and Δ6 fatty acid desaturases. J Agric Food Chem 66(18):4592–4601. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.8b00968
Ran Z, Xu J, Liao K, Monroig Ó, Navarro JC, Oboh A, Jin M, Zhou Q, Zhou C, Tocher DR, Yan X (2019) Biosynthesis of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the razor clam Sinonovacula constricta: characterization of four fatty acyl elongases and a novel desaturase capacity. BBA Mol Cell Biol Lipids 1864(8):1083–1090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2019.04.004
Ran Z, Kong F, Xu J, Liao K, Xu X, Shi P, Chen K, Zhou C, Yan X (2020) Fad and Elovl expressions, fatty acid compositions, and feed effects of three representative microalgae in Sinonovacula constricta (Lamarck 1818) at early developmental stages. Aquaculture 521:735101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735101
Rayner TA, Hwang J-S, Hansen BW (2017) Minimizing the use of fish oil enrichment in live feed by use of a self-enriching calanoid copepod Pseudodiaptomus annandalei. J Plankton Res 39(6):1004–1011. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbx021
Ren HT, Yu JH, Xu P, Tang YK (2012) Influence of dietary fatty acids on muscle fatty acid composition and expression levels of δ6 desaturase-like and Elovl5-like elongase in common carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Jian). Comp Biochem Physiol B 163(2):184–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2012.05.016
Ren HT, Zhang GQ, Li JL, Tang YK, Li HX, Yu JH, Xu P (2013) Two Δ6-desaturase-like genes in common carp (Cyprinus carpio var. Jian): structure characterization, mRNA expression, temperature and nutritional regulation. Gene 525(1):11–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2013.04.073
Ridwanudin A, Kasuya H, Haga Y, Kabeya N, Satoh S (2021) Interactive effect of dietary fish oil and pyrimidine nucleotide supplementation on the fatty acid composition of juvenile rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss: enhancement of ARA and DHA contents in the fillet of fish fed-supplemented diet. Aquac Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.15327
Rivera-Pérez C, Valenzuela-Quiñonez F, Caraveo-Patiño J (2020) Comparative and functional analysis of desaturase FADS1 (Δ5) and FADS2 (Δ6) orthologues of marine organisms. Comp Biochem Phys D 35:100704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbd.2020.100704
Sanden M, Stubhaug I, Berntssen MHG, Lie O, Torstensen BE (2011) Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) as a net producer of long-chain marine omega-3 fatty acids. J Agric Food Chem 59(23):12697–12706. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf203289s
Santerre A, Téllez-Bañuelos MC, Casas-Solís J, Castro-Félix P, Huízar-López MR, Zaitseva GP, Horta-Fernández JL, Trujillo-García EA, de la Mora-Sherer D, Palafox-Luna JA, Juárez-Carrillo E (2015) Δ6-fatty acid desaturase and fatty acid elongase mRNA expression, phagocytic activity and weight-to-length relationships in channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) fed alternative diets with soy oil and a probiotic. Genet Mol Res 14(3):11222–11234. https://doi.org/10.4238/2015.September.22.16
Sargent JR, Tocher DR, Bell JG (2002) The lipids. In: Halver RW, Hardy JE (eds) Fish nutrition, 3rd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 181–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012319652-1/50005-7
Sawyer JM, Arts MT, Arhonditsis G, Diamond ML (2016) A general model of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) uptake, loss and transformation in freshwater fish. Ecol Model 323:96–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2015.12.004
Schlechtriem C, Arts MT, Zellmer ID (2006) Effect of temperature on the fatty acid composition and temporal trajectories of fatty acids in fasting Daphnia pulex (Crustacea, Cladocera). Lipids 41(4):397–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11745-006-5111-9
Sprague M, Xu G, Betancor MB, Olsen RE, Torrissen O, Glencross BD, Tocher DR (2019) Endogenous production of n-3 long-chain PUFA from first feeding and the influence of dietary linoleic acid and the α-linolenic:linoleic ratio in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Br J Nutr 122(10):1091–1102. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114519001946
Sprecher H, Luthria DL, Mohammed BS, Baykousheva SP (1995) Reevaluation of the pathways for the biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids. J Lipid Res 36(12):2471–2477. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781439831939.ch2
Sun JJ, Zheng LG, Chen CY, Zhang JY, You CH, Zhang QH, Ma HY, Monroig Ó, Tocher DR, Wang SQ, Li YY (2019) MicroRNAs involved in the regulation of LC-PUFA biosynthesis in teleosts: miR-33 enhances LC-PUFA biosynthesis in Siganus canaliculatus by targeting insig1 which in turn upregulates srebp1. Mar Biotechnol 21(4):475–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10126-019-09895-w
Sun J, Chen C, You C, Liu Y, Ma H, Monroig Ó, Tocher DR, Wang S, Li Y (2020a) The miR-15/16 cluster is involved in the regulation of vertebrate LC-PUFA biosynthesis by targeting pparγ as demonstrated in rabbitfish Siganus canaliculatus. Mar Biotechnol 22(4):475–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10126-020-09969-0
Sun P, Zhou Q, Monroig Ó, Navarro JC, Jin M, Yuan Y, Wang X, Jiao L (2020b) Cloning and functional characterization of an elovl4-like gene involved in the biosynthesis of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the swimming crab Portunus trituberculatus. Comp Biochem Phys B 242:110408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2020.110408
Surm JM, Toledo TM, Prentis PJ, Pavasovic A (2018) Insights into the phylogenetic and molecular evolutionary histories of Fad and Elovl gene families in Actiniaria. Ecol Evol 8(11):5323–5335. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.4044
Teoh CY, Ng WK (2016) The implications of substituting dietary fish oil with vegetable oils on the growth performance, fillet fatty acid profile and modulation of the fatty acid elongase, desaturase and oxidation activities of red hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis sp. Aquaculture 465:311–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2016.09.023
Ting SY, Janaranjani M, Merosha P, Sam KK, Wong SC, Goh PT, Mah MQ, Kuah MK, Chong Shu-Chien A (2020) Two elongases, Elovl4 and Elovl6, fulfill the elongation routes of the LC-PUFA biosynthesis pathway in the orange mud crab (Scylla olivacea). J Agric Food Chem 68(14):4116–4130. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b06692
Tocher DR (2010) Fatty acid requirements in ontogeny of marine and freshwater fish. Aquac Res 41(5):717–732. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2109.2008.02150.x
Torres M, Navarro JC, Varó I, Agulleiro MJ, Morais S, Monroig Ó, Hontoria F (2020a) Expression of genes related to long-chain (C18–22) and very long-chain (>C24) fatty acid biosynthesis in gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) and Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) larvae: investigating early ontogeny and nutritional regulation. Aquaculture 520:734949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.734949
Torres M, Navarro JC, Varó I, Monroig Ó, Hontoria F (2020b) Nutritional regulation of genes responsible for long-chain (C20-24) and very long-chain (>C24) polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in post-larvae of gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) and Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis). Aquaculture 525:735314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735314
Trushenski JT, Rombenso AN (2020) Trophic levels predict the nutritional essentiality of polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish—introduction to a special section and a brief synthesis. N Am J Aquac 82(3):241–250. https://doi.org/10.1002/naaq.10137
Trushenski JT, Rombenso AN, Jackson CJ (2020) Reevaluating polyunsaturated fatty acid essentiality in channel catfish. N Am J Aquac 82(3):265–277. https://doi.org/10.1002/naaq.10136
Turchini GM, Francis DS (2009) Fatty acid metabolism (desaturation, elongation and β-oxidation) in rainbow trout fed fish oil- or linseed oil-based diets. Br J Nutr 102(1):69–81. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114508137874
Vagner M, Santigosa E (2011) Characterization and modulation of gene expression and enzymatic activity of delta-6 desaturase in teleosts: a review. Aquaculture 315(1–2):131–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2010.11.031
Wang H, Ding J, Ding S, Chang Y (2019) Metabolomic changes and polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis during gonadal growth and development in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus intermedius. Comp Biochem Phys D 32:100611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbd.2019.100611
Wang S, Wang M, Zhang H, Yan X, Guo H, You C, Tocher DR, Chen C, Li Y (2020) Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism in carnivorous marine teleosts: insight into the profile of endogenous biosynthesis in golden pompano Trachinotus ovatus. Aquac Res 51(2):623–635. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.14410
Wen Z, Li Y, Bian C, Shi Q, Li Y (2020) Genome-wide identification of a novel elovl4 gene and its transcription in response to nutritional and osmotic regulations in rabbitfish (Siganus canaliculatus). Aquaculture 529:735666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2020.735666
Windisch HS, Fink P (2018) The molecular basis of essential fatty acid limitation in Daphnia magna: a transcriptomic approach. Mol Ecol 27(4):871–885. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.14498
Wirth M, Steffens W, Meinelt T, Steinberg C (1997) Significance of docosahexaenoic acid for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) larvae. Lipid/Fett 99(7):251–253. https://doi.org/10.1002/lipi.19970990706
Xie D, Chen F, Lin S, Wang S, You C, Monroig Ó, Tocher DR, Li Y (2014) Cloning, functional characterization and nutritional regulation of Δ6 fatty acyl desaturase in the herbivorous euryhaline teleost Scatophagus argus. PLoS One 9(3):e90200. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0090200
Xie D, Wang S, You C, Chen F, Tocher DR, Li Y (2015) Characteristics of LC-PUFA biosynthesis in marine herbivorous teleost Siganus canaliculatus under different ambient salinities. Aquac Nutr 21(5):541–551. https://doi.org/10.1111/anu.12178
Xie D, Chen F, Lin S, You C, Wang S, Zhang Q, Monroig Ó, Tocher DR, Li Y (2016) Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in the euryhaline herbivorous teleost Scatophagus argus: functional characterization, tissue expression and nutritional regulation of two fatty acyl elongases. Comp Biochem Phys B 198:37–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2016.03.009
Xu W, Wang S, You C, Zhang Y, Monroig Ó, Tocher DR, Li Y (2020) The catadromous teleost Anguilla japonica has a complete enzymatic repertoire for the biosynthesis of docosahexaenoic acid from α-linolenic acid: cloning and functional characterization of an Elovl2 elongase. Comp Biochem Phys B 240:110373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpb.2019.110373
Xue X, Hixson SM, Hori TS, Booman M, Parrish CC, Anderson DM, Rise ML (2015) Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) liver transcriptome response to diets containing Camelina sativa products. Comp Biochem Phys D 14:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbd.2015.01.005
Yamamoto Y, Kabeya N, Takeuchi Y, Alimuddin HY, Satoh S, Takeuchi T, Yoshizaki G (2010) Cloning and nutritional regulation of polyunsaturated fatty acid desaturase and elongase of a marine teleost, the nibe croaker Nibea mitsukurii. Fish Sci 76(3):463–472. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12562-010-0227-5
You C, Miao S, Lin S, Wang S, Waiho K, Li Y (2017) Expression of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA) biosynthesis genes and utilization of fatty acids during early development in rabbitfish Siganus canaliculatus. Aquaculture 479:774–779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2017.07.028
Zhang Q, Xie D, Wang S, You C, Monroig Ó, Tocher DR, Li Y (2014) MiR-17 is involved in the regulation of LC-PUFA biosynthesis in vertebrates: effects on liver expression of a fatty acyl desaturase in the marine teleost Siganus canaliculatus. BBA Mol Cell Biol Lipids 1841(7):934–943. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.03.009
Zhang Q, You C, Wang S, Dong Y, Monroig Ó, Tocher DR, Li Y (2016) The miR-33 gene is identified in a marine teleost: a potential role in regulation of LC-PUFA biosynthesis in Siganus canaliculatus. Sci Rep 6:32909. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep32909
Zhang H, Xu P, Jiang Y, Zhao Z, Feng J, Tai R, Dong C, Xu J (2019) Genomic, transcriptomic, and epigenomic features differentiate genes that are relevant for muscular polyunsaturated fatty acids in the common carp. Front Genet 10:217. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2019.00217
Zhao LT, Feng ZF, Lu N, Yang SH, Zhu W (2019) Effects of dietary n-3 PUFA supplements on composition of n-3 PUFA and expression of fatty acid elongase 5 (AJELOVL5) in sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus. Aquac Res 50(1):209–218. https://doi.org/10.1111/are.13885
Zhu KC, Song L, Guo HY, Guo L, Zhang N, Liu BS, Jiang SG, Zhang DC (2019a) Elovl4a participates in LC-PUFA biosynthesis and is regulated by PPARαβ in golden pompano Trachinotus ovatus (Linnaeus 1758). Sci Rep 9(1):4684. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-41288-w
Zhu KC, Song L, Guo HY, Guo L, Zhang N, Liu BS, Jiang SG, Zhang DC (2019b) Identification of fatty acid desaturase 6 in golden pompano Trachinotus ovatus (Linnaeus 1758) and its regulation by the PPARαb transcription factor. Int J Mol Sci 20(1):23. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20010023
Zhukova NV (2019) Fatty acids of marine mollusks: impact of diet, bacterial symbiosis and biosynthetic potential. Biomolecules 9(12):857. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom9120857
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Steinberg, C.E.W. (2022). Biosynthesis of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids—‘Many Can, Some Can’t’. In: Aquatic Animal Nutrition. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-87227-4_28
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-87227-4_28
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-87226-7
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-87227-4
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)