Abstract
In France, the status of universities, and particularly of academic freedom, is comparatively weak when compared to other European countries. The chapter analyses the reasons for this shortcoming and the current threats to academic freedom in France. Of these threats, the increasing employment of legal defamation suits brought against academics is particularly striking. These actions were deliberately aimed at intimidating academics, so that they refrain from making use of their freedom. Another recent threat to academic freedom can be described as an “internal threat”, namely, the threat coming from student activist groups, who increasingly rely on social media to exert pressure on academics. In conclusion, it is not so much the state which academics should fear, but increasingly “the new forces for morality and good”.
Translated by John Jeremy Mossop.
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Notes
- 1.
The proof of this is that, in a recent work now recognized as authoritative, on the law of higher education the expression “academic freedom” does not appear in the index (Beignier and Truchet 2018).
- 2.
Translator’s note: the term “university freedoms”, as used in France, designates both the academic freedom of individual members of a university and the academic freedom of the university itself, seen as an institution.
- 3.
These two exemptions, which form part of the body of institutional guarantees granted to academics, regard both individuals (teachers and students) and the institution to which they belong (the university).
- 4.
This is the general sense of our 2010 book on university freedoms (see Beaud 2010a).
- 5.
- 6.
Nowadays we should point to the works of Pascal Engel, particularly his article in the European Review of History (see Engel 2020).
- 7.
The principal ideas can be found in the work of Epistémon (1968). This is a pseudonym for Didier Anzieu, then professor of psychology at Nanterre, so well-placed to know the “literature” produced by the students. I am extremely grateful to François Vatin for supplying this reference.
- 8.
Our reasoning here does not apply only to France, which is why we employ the concept which prevails abroad: that university members are university professors. Here France distinguishes itself (sadly once again) through this duality, which is symptomatic of the declining status of our universities and our professors.
- 9.
See the corresponding definition provided by Edward Shils: “Academic freedom is a qualified right; it is a privilege enjoyed in consequence of incumbency in a special role, an academic role, and it is enjoyed conditionally on conformity with certain obligations to the academic institution and its rules and standards” (p. 189 in Shils 1993).
- 10.
From the article by Vedel (1960) on the above-mentioned theses of Bernard Toulemonde and Camille Fernandes.
- 11.
- 12.
See conclusions of Donnedieu de Vabres, Conseil d’État 13th March 1953, Teissier, D. 1953.737.
- 13.
Conseil d’État 26th December 1930, Chauveau, concl. Ettori, S. 1931.III.18.
- 14.
This gradual erosion of university freedoms has not been slowed at all by the Council of State, which bears a heavy responsibility in the decline of the juridical framework of these freedoms, by refusing to take into consideration the audacious jurisprudence of the Constitutional Council (see below), and also by an equally systematic tendency to misjudge the particular nature of the status of academics by repeatedly including them in the category of ordinary state employees, which they obviously are not (see Chapter 4, pp. 149 and ff. in Beaud 2010a).
- 15.
See also here Beaud (2010a), and refer also to the chapter “Epilogue”, in which we allow ourselves a systematic criticism of the decision reached by the Constitutional Council on 10th August 2010 (pp. 287 and ff. ibid.).
- 16.
See Loi de programme n° 2006–450 du 18 avril 2006 pour la recherche, Article 41. https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000000426953. Accessed 6 March 2021.
- 17.
In the above-mentioned book (Beaud 2010a) we sight the case of a female historian who was oblidged to enrol in the doctoral school of a different university while her doctorate students had to be enrolled in the doctoral school of her own university, of which she was not a member. Absurdity reigns supreme, in absolute indifference, in French universities.
- 18.
Here we will leave aside the actions brought against historians who do not submit to this logic. Thus, the great American historian, Bernard Lewis, was found to be at fault, in civil terms, for his tendency to deny the Armenian genocide.
- 19.
TGI Paris 11 déc. 1994, Rec Dalloz. 1995, p. 511.
- 20.
The former President of the Republic (Sarkozy) and his adviser (Buisson) fell out after it was discovered that the latter was secretly (without the President’s knowledge) recording their conversations at the Elysée.
- 21.
The verdict is a reminder of the highly curious way, in which a foundation of this nature succeeded in being recognized as a state approved foundation when important politicians such as Michel Rocard and the Council of State were opposed to it in the initial stages. It was only intense lobbying by the Foundation that enabled it to obtain what it had at first been denied.
- 22.
TGI (Tribunal de grande instance de Paris) 17th chambre, 20 September 2010 (petition 09/04019), Franco-Japanese foundation named Sasakawa vs. K. Postel-Vinay, p. 9. Our thanks go to Me. Thierry Marembert, defending counsel, for having informed us of this verdict.
- 23.
See “Déboutée”. 22 September 2010. https://www.lesinfluences.fr/Deboutee.html. Accessed 3 March 2021.
- 24.
It was the subject of an editorial in one of the two most important French weekly juridical reviews: Jamin (2017).
- 25.
CA Paris du 28 Sept. 2017.
- 26.
The private parties in the court action were ordered to pay € 3000 of damages plus interest to Laurent Neyret and € 2000 to the director of the Revue, i.e. a total of € 20,000.
- 27.
It is well-known that this film provoked the anger of certain feminist groups, some of whom managed to prevent its being shown in certain Parisian cinemas.
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Beaud, O. (2022). Academic Freedom in France: A Concept Neglected and Liberties under Threat. In: De Gennaro, I., Hofmeister, H., Lüfter, R. (eds) Academic Freedom in the European Context. Palgrave Critical University Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86931-1_9
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