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Bombardment, Public Safety and Resilience in English Coastal Communities during the First World War

Part of the book series: Global Studies in Social and Cultural Maritime History ((GSSCMH))

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Abstract

This introductory chapter situates the study within the historical context and historiography. It introduces the central guiding themes of the work: wartime resilience, power relations and the coastal–urban environment. These themes combine and interrelate to provide a perspective on the First World War home front firmly situated in the ‘coastal zone’. The chapter also situates the central case studies—Hull, Hartlepool, West Hartlepool, Scarborough and Whitby—through detailed expositions of their geographic situation, socio-economic and cultural characters, demography and relative experiences of bombing attacks. The use of non-metropolitan case studies allows this history to be decentred and reassessed, in order to avoid an assumed, generalised national experience.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Jan Ifversen, ‘The Crisis of European Civilisation After 1918’ in Ideas of Europe since 1914: The Legacy of the First World War, eds. Menno Spiering and Michael Wintle (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002), 29. See also Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau and Annette Becker, 14–18 Understanding the Great War (New York: Hill & Wang, 2014, first published 2000), 8; Dorothee Brantz, ‘Environments of Death: Trench Warfare on the Western Front, 1914–18’ in War and the Environment: Military Destruction in the Modern Age, ed. Charles E. Closmann (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2009), 72.

  2. 2.

    Audoin-Rouzeau and Becker, Understanding, 22, 35; Paul Cornish, ‘Afterword: The Mobilization of Memory 1917–2014’ in Commemorative Spaces of the First World War: Historical Geographies at the Centenary, eds. James Wallis and David C. Harvey (Abingdon: Routledge, 2018), 225–236.

  3. 3.

    David R. Meddings, ‘Civilians and War: A Review and Historical Overview of the Involvement of Non-combatant Populations in Conflict Situations’, Medicine, Conflict and Survival, 17 (1) (2001), 6–16; Mathias Delori, ‘Humanitarian Violence: How Western Airmen Kill and Let Die in Order to Make Live’, Critical Military Studies (2017), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/23337486.2017.1401827, 1–19.

  4. 4.

    Roger Chickering, ‘World War I and the Theory of Total War: Reflections on the British and German Cases, 1914–1915’ in Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914–1918, eds. Roger Chickering and Stig Förster (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 35; Hew Strachan, ‘The First World War as a Global War’, First World War Studies, 1 (1) (2010), 3–14; William Mulligan, ‘Review Essay: Total War’, War in History, 15 (2) (2008), 211–21.

  5. 5.

    Tait Keller, ‘The Ecological Edges of Belligerency: Toward an Environmental History of the First World War’, Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 71 (1) (2016), 63; Christopher Phillips, Civilian Specialists at War: Britain’s Transport Experts and the First World War (London: University of London Press, 2020).

  6. 6.

    Brad Beaven, Visions of Empire: Patriotism, Popular Culture and the City, 1870–1939 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2012), Ch. 4; Audoin-Rouzeau and Becker, 34; Helen McCartney, Citizen Soldiers: the Liverpool Territorials in the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

  7. 7.

    Michael Reeve, ‘Special Needs, Cheerful Habits: Smoking and the Great War in Britain, 1914–18’, Cultural and Social History, 13 (2) (2016), 483–501; David Monger, Sarah Murray and Katie Pickles, eds., Endurance and the First World War: Experiences and Legacies in New Zealand and Australia (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars, 2014); Rachel Duffett, The Stomach for Fighting: Food and the Soldiers of the Great War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2012); Jessica Meyer, Men of War: Masculinity and the First World War in Britain (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009); Michael Roper, The Secret Battle: Emotional Survival in the Great War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009).

  8. 8.

    Lucy Noakes and Susan R. Grayzel, ‘Defending the Home(land): Gendering Civil Defence from the First World War to the “War on Terror”’ in Gender and Conflict since 1914: Historical and Interdisciplinary Perspectives, ed. Ana Carden-Coyne (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2012), 30.

  9. 9.

    Patrick Joyce, The Rule of Freedom: Liberalism and the Modern City (London: Verso, 2003), 88–9.

  10. 10.

    Susan R. Grayzel, At Home and Under Fire: Air Raids and Culture in Britain from the Great War to the Blitz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 23.

  11. 11.

    Margaret Garb, ‘The Great Chicago Waiters’ Strike: Producing Urban Space, Organizing Labor, Challenging Racial Divides in 1890s Chicago’, Journal of Urban History, 40 (6) (2014), 1081.

  12. 12.

    Robert Bevan, The Destruction of Memory: Architecture at War (London: Reaktion, 2016), 24.

  13. 13.

    Stéphan Audoin-Rouzeau and Annette Becker define the ‘1914–18 war culture’ as a ‘collection of representations of the conflict that crystallised into a system of thought which gave the war its deep significance’. See Audoin-Rouzeau and Becker, 14–18 Understanding the Great War (New York: Hill & Wang, 2014), 102–3.

  14. 14.

    ‘Air Raid Warnings’, Hull Daily Mail, 22 June 1917, 6; McCartney, Citizen Soldiers, Ch. 5.

  15. 15.

    Francis Dodsworth, ‘Risk, Prevention and Policing, c. 1750–1850’ in Governing Risks in Modern Britain: Danger, Safety and Accidents, c. 1800–2000, eds. Tom Crook and Mike Esbester (London: Palgrave, 2016), 42, 54.

  16. 16.

    Steven Loveridge, ‘Seeing Trauma as Sacrifice: The Link Between “Sentimental Equipment” and Endurance in New Zealand’s War Effort’ in Endurance and the First World War: Experiences and Legacies in New Zealand and Australia, eds. David Monger, Sarah Murray and Katie Pickles (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars, 2014), 58–60; Horne, ‘Mobilising’, 11.

  17. 17.

    Pierre Purseigle, ‘The First World War and the Transformations of the State’, International Affairs, 90 (2) (2014), 249–264; Keith Neilson, ‘Managing the War: Britain, Russia and Ad Hoc Government’ in Strategy and Intelligence: British Policy during the First World War, eds. Michael Dockrill and David French (London: Hambledon Press, 1996), 96–118.

  18. 18.

    War Office, Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire during the Great War, 1914–1920 (London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1922), 674–5.

  19. 19.

    Jan Rüger, ‘Revisiting the Anglo-German Antagonism’, Journal of Modern History, 83 (3) (2011), 579–617.

  20. 20.

    Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 80.

  21. 21.

    Hartlepool Northern Daily Mail, 16 December 1915, 2.

  22. 22.

    Andrew Spicer, ‘The ‘Other War’: Subversive Images of the Second World War in Service Comedies’ in Relocating Britishness, eds. Steven Caunce, Ewa Mazierska, Susan Sydney-Smith and John K. Walton (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), 167–182.

  23. 23.

    David Monger, ‘Endurance and First World War Scholarship’ in Endurance and the First World War: Experiences and Legacies in New Zealand and Australia, eds. David Monger, Sarah Murray and Katie Pickles (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars, 2014), 8; Jessica Meyer, Men of War: Masculinity and the First World War in Britain (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 17.

  24. 24.

    Monger, ‘Endurance’, 1–13; Carola Hein and Dirk Schubert, ‘Resilience, Disaster, and Rebuilding in Modern Port Cities’, Journal of Urban History, 47 (2) (2021), 235–249; Sara Meerow and Joshua P. Newell, ‘Urban Resilience for Whom, What, When, Where, and Why?’, Urban Geography (2016), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2016.1206395.

  25. 25.

    Loveridge, ‘Seeing Trauma’, 49–65.

  26. 26.

    Kai Erikson, ‘Notes on Trauma and Community’ in Trauma: Explorations in Memory, ed. Cathy Caruth (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), 194.

  27. 27.

    Kevin Rozario, ‘Making Progress: Disaster Narratives and the Art of Optimism in Modern America’ in The Resilient City: How Modern Cities Recover from Disaster, eds. Lawrence J. Vale and Thomas J. Campanella (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 27.

  28. 28.

    Lawrence J. Vale and Thomas J. Campanella, ‘Introduction: The Cities Rise Again’ in The Resilient City: How Modern Cities Recover from Disaster, eds. Lawrence J. Vale and Thomas J. Campanella (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 12.

  29. 29.

    Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of the Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (London: Routledge, 2001), 88; Leonard, ‘Assaulting’, 43.

  30. 30.

    Keller, 63; Thilo Folkerts, ‘Landscape as Memory’, Journal of Landscape Architecture, 10 (1) (2015), 76; Nicholas J. Saunders, ‘Materiality, Space and Distance in the First World War’ in Modern Conflict and the Senses, eds. Nicholas J. Saunders and Paul Cornish (London: Routledge, 2017), 31.

  31. 31.

    Bevan, Destruction, 26–8, 229.

  32. 32.

    Saunders, ‘Materiality’, 31, 35; Proctor, Civilians, 107.

  33. 33.

    Audoin-Rouzeau and Becker, 61–2; Stuart Hallifax, “Over by Christmas’: British Popular Opinion and the Short War in 1914’, First World War Studies, 1 (2) (2010), 103–121.

  34. 34.

    Monger, ‘Endurance’, 1–4.

  35. 35.

    David Monger, ‘Soldiers, Propaganda and Ideas of Home in First World War Britain’, Cultural and Social History, 8 (3) (2011), 331–54; Michael Roper, The Secret Battle: Emotional Survival in the Great War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009), 51; Catherine Rollett, ‘The Home and Family Life’ in Capital Cities at War, Vol. II: A Cultural History, eds. Jay Winter and Jean-Louis Robert (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 315–353.

  36. 36.

    Roper, Secret Battle, 29–30.

  37. 37.

    Monger, ‘Ideas of Home’, 335–6; Rachel Duffett, ‘A War Unimagined: Food and the Rank and File Soldier of the First World War’ in British Popular Culture and the First World War, ed. Jessica Meyer (Leiden: Brill, 2008), 61; Reeve, ‘Special Needs’, 486.

  38. 38.

    Adrian Gregory, The Last Great War: British Society and the First World War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 113, 133.

  39. 39.

    Imperial War Museum (IWM), Dept. of Documents, Documents.16285, Private Papers of Lieutenant P. Thornton, P. Thornton to E. Ormiston, 22 April 1916.

  40. 40.

    Liddle Collection, Special Collections, University of Leeds Library (LC), LIDDLE/WW1/GS/0603A, Papers of L.W. Gamble, 4th East Yorks, L.W. Gamble to Mother, 20 April 1916.

  41. 41.

    Rollett, ‘The Home’, 316–17; Meyer, 14.

  42. 42.

    Derrick A. Hamaoka et al., ‘Military and Civilian Disaster Response and Resilience: From Gene to Policy’, Military Medicine, 175, Issue Supplement 7 (2010), 32–36; R. Srinivasa Murthy and Rashmi Lakshminarayana, ‘Mental Health Consequences of War: A Brief Review of Research Findings’, World Psychiatry, 5 (1) (2006), 25–30.

  43. 43.

    Noakes and Grayzel, ‘Defending’, 33; Joanna Bourke, ‘Fear and Anxiety: Writing about Emotion in Modern History’, History Workshop Journal, 55 (2003), 111–133.

  44. 44.

    Ben Shephard, A War of Nerves: Soldiers and Psychiatrists in the Twentieth Century (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001); Peter Leese, Shell Shock: Traumatic Neurosis and the British Soldiers of the First World War (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002); Edgar Jones and Simon Wessely, Shell Shock to PTSD: Military Psychiatry from 1900 to the Gulf War (London: Psychology Press, 2005); Fiona Reid, Broken Men: Shell Shock, Treatment and Recovery in Britain, 1914–30 (Hove: Continuum, 2011); Steven Loveridge, ‘Seeing Trauma as Sacrifice: The Link Between “Sentimental Equipment” and Endurance in New Zealand’s War Effort’ in Endurance and the First World War: Experiences and Legacies in New Zealand and Australia, eds. David Monger, Sarah Murray and Katie Pickles (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars, 2014), 49–65; Grayzel, At Home, 39, 43.

  45. 45.

    ‘Zeppelins and Psychology’, The Times, 10 September 1915, 9; ‘War Shock in the Civilian’, The Lancet, 4 March 1916; ‘Air Raid Psychology’, 14 July 1917; ‘Air-Raid Psychology and Air-Raid Perils’, 6 October 1917.

  46. 46.

    ‘War Shock in the Civilian’, The Lancet, 4 March 1916, 522.

  47. 47.

    Fiona Reid, Medicine in First World War Europe: Soldiers, Medics, Pacifists (London: Bloomsbury, 2017), 85–6.

  48. 48.

    ‘Hull Woman’s Death: Killed by the Buzzers’, Hull Daily Mail, 14 July 1915, 3.

  49. 49.

    ‘The Real Object of Night Patrols’, Hull Daily Mail, 9 September 1915, 2.

  50. 50.

    Jessica Hammett, ‘“It’s in the Blood, isn’t it?” The Contested Status of First World War Veterans in Second World War Civil Defence’, Cultural and Social History, 14 (3) (2017), 352.

  51. 51.

    Gullace, “The Blood”, 148. See also, George L. Mosse, The Image of Man: The Creation of Modern Masculinity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 210; Gregory, Last Great War, 150.

  52. 52.

    Bourke, Fear, 62; Reid, Medicine, 86.

  53. 53.

    Horne, ‘Mobilizing’, 12; Gregory, 150.

  54. 54.

    Audoin-Rouzeau and Becker, 87.

  55. 55.

    Richard H. Trainor’s assessment of the ‘decline’ of British urban governance from 1850, in a section on the period 1914–80, deals with the fallout of the war, but not the war itself, despite its chronology suggesting otherwise. See ‘The ‘Decline’ of British Urban Governance since 1850: A Reassessment’ in Urban Governance: Britain and Beyond since 1750, eds. Robert J. Morris and Richard H. Trainor (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000), 36–9; John Garrard, ‘English Mayors: What Are They For?’ in Heads of the Local State: Mayors, Provosts and Burgomasters since 1800, ed. John Garrard (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), 11–28; Marguerite Dupree, ‘The Provision of Social Services’ in The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, Vol. III, ed. Martin Daunton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 351–394; On the definition of ‘long nineteenth century’, see Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire 1875–1914 (New York: Vintage, 1989), 6.

  56. 56.

    Simon Gunn, ‘Elites, Power and Governance’ in In Control of the City: Local Elites and the Dynamics of Urban Politics, 1800–1960, eds. Stefan Couperus, Christianne Smit and Dirk Jan Wolffram (Leuven: Peeters, 2007), 195–6.

  57. 57.

    Robert J. Morris, ‘Governance: Two Centuries of Urban Growth’ in Urban Governance: Britain and Beyond since 1750, eds. Robert J. Morris and Richard H. Trainor (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000), 1; Gunn, ‘Elites’, 195.

  58. 58.

    Morris, ‘Governance’, 1.

  59. 59.

    Mike Goldsmith and John Garrard, ‘Urban Governance: Some Reflections’ in Urban Governance: Britain and Beyond since 1750, eds. Robert J. Morris and Richard H. Trainor (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000), 18; Purseigle, ‘Beyond and Below’, 98–9.

  60. 60.

    E.P. Hennock, ‘Central/Local Government Relations in England: An Outline 1800–1950’, Urban History Yearbook, 9 (1982), 45.

  61. 61.

    Ibid.; John Davis, ‘Central Government and the Towns’ in The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, Vol. III, ed. Martin Daunton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 273.

  62. 62.

    Barry Supple, ‘War Economies’ in The Cambridge History of the First World War, Vol. II: The State, ed. Jay Winter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 300–2.

  63. 63.

    Barry M. Doyle, ‘The Changing Functions of Urban Government: Councillors, Officials and Pressure Groups’ in The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, Vol. III, ed. Martin Daunton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 289.

  64. 64.

    Joyce, Freedom, 258–61.

  65. 65.

    Gunn, ‘Elites’, 197.

  66. 66.

    Andrew Hobbs, ‘When the Provincial Press was the National Press (c.1836–c.1900)’, International Journal of Regional and Local Studies, 5 (1) (2009), 39; Michael Bromley and Nick Hayes, ‘Campaigner, Watchdog or Municipal Lackey? Reflections on the Inter-war Provincial Press, Local Identity and Civic Welfarism’, Media History, 8 (2) (2002), 197, 199–200; Gabrina Pounds, ‘Democratic Participation and Letters to the Editor in Britain and Italy’, Discourse & Society, 17 (1) (2006), 32–3.

  67. 67.

    For example, see ‘Air Raids’, Hull Daily Mail, 8 July 1915, 2.

  68. 68.

    Virginia Berridge, ‘Popular Sunday Papers and Mid-Victorian Society’ in Newspaper History from the 17th Century to the Present Day, eds. George Boyce, James Curran and Pauline Wingate (London: Constable, 1978), 252.

  69. 69.

    Purseigle, ‘Beyond and Below’, 97; Grayzel, At Home, 91–2; Keller, ‘Ecological Edges’, 65.

  70. 70.

    ‘No Registration and Local Elections’, The Times, 22 July 1915, 6; ‘The Commons and the Register’, The Times, 17 August 1916, 7; Purseigle, 119.

  71. 71.

    Doyle, ‘Urban Government’, 297; Shane Ewen, What Is Urban History? (Cambridge: Polity, 2016), 61.

  72. 72.

    E.P. Hennock, ‘Central/Local Government Relations in England: An Outline 1800–1950’, Urban History Yearbook, 9 (1982), 42; Chris Otter, The Victorian Eye: A Political History of Light and Vision in Britain, 1800–1910 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008), 69, 262; André Keil, ‘States of Exception: Emergency Government and ‘Enemies Within’ in Britain and Germany during the First World War’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, Northumbria University, 2014), 264; Stig Förster, ‘Civil-Military Relations’ in The Cambridge History of the First World War, Vol. 2: The State, ed. Jay Winter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 91, 100.

  73. 73.

    James Moore and Richard Rodger, ‘Who Really Ran the Cities? Municipal Knowledge and Policy Networks in British Local Government, 1832–1914’ in Who Ran the Cities? City Elites and Urban Power Structures in Europe and North America, 1750–1940, eds. Ralf Roth and Robert Beachy (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007), 49.

  74. 74.

    Ibid., 69.

  75. 75.

    Hull History Centre (HHC), City and County of Kingston Upon Hull Municipal Corporation and Urban Sanitary Authority. Minutes of Proceedings of Committees: Watch, Water and Gas, Asylum, Committee for the care of the mentally defective, 1914–1918.

  76. 76.

    Moore and Rodger, ‘Municipal Knowledge’, 51.

  77. 77.

    Andy Croll, Civilizing the Urban: Popular Culture and Public Space in Merthyr, c. 1870–1914 (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2000), 20.

  78. 78.

    Brock Millman, ‘British Home Defence Planning and Civil Dissent, 1917–1918’, War in History, 5 (2) (1998), 228.

  79. 79.

    Ibid., 213–6; Norman Longmate, Island Fortress: The Defence of Great Britain 1603–1945 (London: Random Century, 1991), 443–4; Peter Dennis, The Territorial Army, 1906–1940 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1987), 18–20.

  80. 80.

    Susan Grayzel, At Home and Under Fire: Air Raids and Culture in Britain from the Great War to the Blitz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 123.

  81. 81.

    Noakes and Grayzel, ‘Defending’, 32; Adam Page, Architectures of Survival: Air War and Urbanism in Britain, 1935–52 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2019), Ch. 2.

  82. 82.

    Dodsworth, ‘Risk’, 39; Joanna Bourke, Fear: A Cultural History (London: Virago, 2006), 189.

  83. 83.

    Thomas Fegan, The ‘Baby Killers’: German Air Raids on Britain in the First World War (Barnsley: Pen & Sword, 2012), 173–4.

  84. 84.

    Jann M. Witt and Robin McDermott, Scarborough Bombardment: The Attack by the German High Seas Fleet on Scarborough, Whitby and Hartlepool on 16 December 1914 (Berlin: Palm Verlag, 2016), 113; Mark Marsay, Bombardment! The Day the East Coast Bled (Scarborough: Great Northern Publishing, 1999), 459, 486, 493–4; War Office, Statistics, 676.

  85. 85.

    Brett Holman, The Next War in the Air: Britain’s Fear of the Bomber, 1908–1941 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2016), 222.

  86. 86.

    War Office, Statistics, 677.

  87. 87.

    Stefan Goebel, ‘Cities’ in The Cambridge History of the First World War, Vol. II: The State, ed. Jay Winter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 374; Grayzel, ‘“A promise of terror to come”: Air Power and the Destruction of Cities in British Imagination and Experience, 1908–39’ in Cities into Battlefields: Metropolitan Scenarios, Experiences and Commemorations of Total War, eds. Stefan Goebel and Derek Keene (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011), 47–62.

  88. 88.

    Arthur G. Credland, The Hull Zeppelin Raids 1915–1918 (Oxford: Fonthill, 2014), 108–11.

  89. 89.

    Holman, Next War, 23.

  90. 90.

    David Atkinson, ‘Trauma, Resilience and Utopianism in Second World War Hull’ in Hull: Culture, History, Place, eds. David J. Starkey, David Atkinson, Briony McDonagh, Sarah McKeon and Elisabeth Salter (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2017), 241.

  91. 91.

    Peter Adey, Mark Whitehead and Alison Williams, From Above: War, Violence and Verticality (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 248; Ariela Freedman, ‘Zeppelin Fictions and the British Home Front’, Journal of Modern Literature, 27 (3) (2004), 50. For representations and reflections upon the Zeppelin threat in European and American popular culture, see Robin Hedin, ed., The Zeppelin Reader: Stories, Poems, and Songs from the Age of Airships (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1998). On British conceptions of ‘morale’, see Daniel Ussishkin, Morale: A Modern British History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017).

  92. 92.

    Audoin-Rouzeau and Becker, 30, 102–3, 107; Horne and Kramer, 175.

  93. 93.

    Holman, ‘The Phantom Airship Panic of 1913: Imagining Aerial Warfare in Britain before the Great War’, Journal of British Studies, 55 (1) (2016), 101.

  94. 94.

    Friedman, ‘Zeppelin Fictions’, 50–1.

  95. 95.

    H.G. Wells, The War in the Air (London: Penguin Classics, 2005; first published 1908).

  96. 96.

    Susan R. Grayzel, ‘“A promise of terror to come”: Air Power and the Destruction of Cities in British Imagination and Experience, 1908–39’ in Cities into Battlefields: Metropolitan Scenarios, Experiences and Commemorations of Total War, eds. Stefan Goebel and Derek Keene (Farnham: Ashgate, 2011), 47–62; Nicoletta F. Gullace, “The Blood of Our Sons”: Men, Women, and the Renegotiation of British Citizenship During the Great War (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 147; Redford, ‘Sea Blindness’, 70.

  97. 97.

    ‘Britain’s Baptism of Fire in the Great War: The Scene of the German Raid’, The Graphic, 26 December 1914, 9.

  98. 98.

    ‘Health Resorts’, Yorkshire Post, 25 July 1917, 1.

  99. 99.

    Sarah Palmer, ‘Ports’, The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, Vol. III, ed. Martin Daunton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 133; Brad Beaven, Karl Bell and Robert James, ‘Introduction’ in Port Towns and Urban Cultures: International Histories of the Waterfront, c.1700–2000, eds. Brad Beaven, Karl Bell and Robert James (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 1–10.

  100. 100.

    Duncan Redford, ‘The Royal Navy, Sea Blindness and British National Identity’ in Maritime History and Identity: The Sea and Culture in the Modern World, ed. Duncan Redford (London: I.B. Tauris, 2014), 67; John Mander, Our German Cousins: Anglo-German Relations in the 19th and 20th Centuries (London: John Murray, 1974), 236–7.

  101. 101.

    Frederick Miller, Under German Shell-fire: The Hartlepools, Scarborough and Whitby under German Shell-fire, Third Edition (West Hartlepool: Robert Martin Ltd., 1917), 9.

  102. 102.

    Morgan-Owen, Fear of Invasion, 155.

  103. 103.

    John Beckett, Writing Local History (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007), 197; Pierre Purseigle, ‘Beyond and Below the Nations: Towards a Comparative History of Local Communities at War’ in Uncovered Fields: perspectives in First World War Studies, eds. Jenny Macleod and Pierre Purseigle (Leiden: Brill, 2004), 95. Recent notable work includes: Jerry White, Zeppelin Nights: London in the First World War (London: Vintage, 2014); Stefan Goebel and Derek Keene, eds., Cities into Battlefields: Metropolitan Scenarios, Experiences and Commemorations of Total War (London: Ashgate, 2011). Jay Winter and Jean-Louis Robert’s two-volume edited collection, Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), began a concerted focus within First World War studies to assess the social and cultural impact of the conflict on major European capital cities.

  104. 104.

    Purseigle, ‘Beyond and Below’, 98–9.

  105. 105.

    Jay Winter, ‘Propaganda and the Mobilisation of Consent’ in The Oxford Illustrated History of the First World War, ed. Hew Strachan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), 217–18.

  106. 106.

    Susan R. Grayzel, At Home and Under Fire: Air Raids and Culture in Britain from the Great War to the Blitz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Tammy M. Proctor, Civilians in a World at War, 1914–1918 (New York: New York University Press, 2010).

  107. 107.

    Noakes and Grayzel, ‘Defending’, 30.

  108. 108.

    Jan Rüger, The Great Naval Game: Britain and Germany in the Age of Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 210.

  109. 109.

    Rüger, Heligoland, 125.

  110. 110.

    Rüger, Naval Game, 210–12.

  111. 111.

    Robert Lewis, ‘Comments on Urban Agency: Relational Space and Intentionality’, Urban History, 44 (1) (2017), 137–44; David Worthington, ‘Introducing the New Coastal History: Cultural and Environmental Perspectives from Scotland and Beyond’ in The New Coastal History: Cultural and Environmental Perspectives from Scotland and Beyond, ed. David Worthington (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 3–30.

  112. 112.

    Ibid., 138.

  113. 113.

    Michel de Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life (London: University of California Press, 1988), 117.

  114. 114.

    Brad Beaven, Visions of Empire: Patriotism, Popular Culture and the City, 1870–1939 (Manchester University Press, 2012), 12–13; Redford, ‘Sea Blindness’, 67. For a local example, see North Yorkshire County Record Office (NYCRO), Z.629, The German Raid on Whitby (Whitby: Abbey Press, 1915).

  115. 115.

    Bevan, Destruction, 24; Anthony Vidler, ‘Air War and Architecture’ in Ruins of Modernity, eds. Julia Hell and Andres Schönle (London: Duke University Press, 2010), 33.

  116. 116.

    Isaac Land, ‘Doing Urban History in the Coastal Zone’ in in Port Towns and Urban Cultures: International Histories of the Waterfront, c.1700–2000, eds. Brad Beaven, Karl Bell and Robert James (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 266–7.

  117. 117.

    Lewis, 139, 141; Garb, ‘Urban Space’, 1081.

  118. 118.

    Carola Hein, ‘Port Cityscapes: A Networked Analysis of the Built Environment’ in Port Cities: Dynamic Landscapes and Global Networks, ed. Carola Hein (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011), 5, 9–11.

  119. 119.

    Lewis, 140, 143.

  120. 120.

    Panikos Panayi, Prisoners of Britain: German Civilian and Combatant Internees during the First World War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2012), 203.

  121. 121.

    Land, ‘Coastal Zone’, 268.

  122. 122.

    Ernest E. Taylor, The ‘Handy’ Guide Series: Scarborough and Yorkshire Coast (Darlington: “Northern Echo”, 1919), 21. British Library (BL), General Reference Collection, W.P.5819.

  123. 123.

    ‘“Seizing” Hull’, Hull Daily Mail, 18 September 1905, 2; ‘The Invasion of Scarborough’, Leeds Mercury, 24 April 1909, 5; Morgan-Owen, 135, 153.

  124. 124.

    Morgan-Owen, 131–2, 153.

  125. 125.

    Teesside Archives (TA), OA/584, Oral Histories Collection, Mrs G. Petch (Hartlepool).

  126. 126.

    ‘Rumours and Invasion’, Daily Gazette for Middlesbrough, 26 December 1914, 2.

  127. 127.

    Marci Shore, ‘Can We See Ideas?: On Evocation, Experience, and Empathy’ in Rethinking Modern European Intellectual History, eds. Darrin M. McMahon and Samuel Moyn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 198.

  128. 128.

    Jim Sharpe, ‘History from Below’ in New Perspectives on Historical Writing, ed. Peter Burke (Cambridge: Polity, 1997), 25; Audoin-Rouzeau and Becker, 16.

  129. 129.

    Purseigle, ‘Beyond and Below’, 96.

  130. 130.

    Chris Otter, ‘Roundtable: The Anthropocene in British History’, Journal of British Studies, 57 (2018), 572; Dorothee Brantz, ‘Assembling the Multitude: Questions About Agency in the Urban Environment’, Urban History, 44 (1) (2017), 130.

  131. 131.

    John Brewer, ‘Microhistory and the Histories of Everyday Life’, Cultural and Social History, 7 (1) (2010), 104.

  132. 132.

    István Szijártó, ‘Four Arguments for Microhistory’, Rethinking History, 6 (2) (2002), 211.

  133. 133.

    Robert Colls, ‘When We Lived in Communities: Working-class Culture and its Critics’ in Cities of Ideas: Civil Society and Urban Governance in Britain 1800–2000, eds. Robert Colls and Richard Rodger (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2004), 290.

  134. 134.

    Monger, ‘Ideas of Home’, 334.

  135. 135.

    Catherine Rollett, ‘The Home and Family Life’ in Capital Cities at War, Vol. II: A Cultural History, eds. Jay Winter and Jean-Louis Robert (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 315–17.

  136. 136.

    Jay Winter, ‘Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919: Capital Cities at War’ in Capital Cities at War: Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919, eds. Jay Winter and Jean-Louis Robert (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 3.

  137. 137.

    Ibid., 8.

  138. 138.

    Miller, Shell-fire, 9–10.

  139. 139.

    Preliminary report, 1911 England census, http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/census/EW1911PRE/2 (accessed 15 August 2018).

  140. 140.

    Antoine Prost, ‘Workers’ in The Cambridge History of the First World War, Vol. II: The State, ed. Jay Winter (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 325–357.

  141. 141.

    Edward M. Spiers, ‘Voluntary Recruiting in Yorkshire, 1914–15’, Northern History, 52 (2) (2015), 305.

  142. 142.

    Holman, 222.

  143. 143.

    Ibid.

  144. 144.

    Ibid.

  145. 145.

    Gregory, 150; Horne, 11.

  146. 146.

    Horne, 11.

  147. 147.

    Sarah Palmer, ‘Ports’ in The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, Vol. III, ed. Martin Daunton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 141.

  148. 148.

    Ibid., 144.

  149. 149.

    Byrne, ‘Trawlertown’, 246.

  150. 150.

    Joyce Bellamy, ‘The Humber Estuary and Industrial Development: Historical’ in A Dynamic Estuary: Man, Nature and the Humber, ed. N.V. Jones (Hull: University of Hull Press, 1988), 138; Martin Wilcox, ‘Dock Development, 1778–1914’ in Hull: Culture, History, Place, eds. David J. Starkey, David Atkinson, Briony McDonagh, Sarah McKeon and Elisabeth Salter (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2017), 136–8.

  151. 151.

    Bellamy, ‘The Humber’, 140, 143, 146.

  152. 152.

    Michael Reeve, “An Empire Dock’: Place Promotion and the Local Acculturation of Imperial Discourse in ‘Britain’s Third Port”, Northern History, 58 (1) (2021), 129–150.

  153. 153.

    ‘Hull: The Third Port’, Hull Daily Mail, 26 June 1914, 5; ‘An Empire Dock’, Hull Daily Mail, 26 June 1914, 12.

  154. 154.

    ‘An Empire Dock’, Hull Daily Mail, 26 June 1914, 12; Tom Hulme, “A nation of town criers’: Civic Publicity and Historical Pageantry in Inter-war Britain’, Urban History, 44 (2) (2017), 273.

  155. 155.

    ‘Hull’s Municipal Undertakings’, Hull Daily Mail, 26 June 1914, 20.

  156. 156.

    John Davis, ‘Central Government and the Towns’ in The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, Vol. III, ed. Martin Daunton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 273; Eastern Morning News, 29 June 1914, 2.

  157. 157.

    Panikos Panayi, ‘German Business Interests in Britain during the First World War’, Business History, 32 (2) (1990), 245–6; John Brooks, ‘Dreadnought: Blunder, or Stroke of Genius?’, War in History, 14 (2) (2007), 173.

  158. 158.

    Hartlepool and West Hartlepool were unified in 1967. See Hansard, Hartlepool Order (1966), HL Deb 08 February 1967 vol 279 cc1468–70. Available: http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/lords/1967/feb/08/hartlepool-order-1966 (accessed 26 June 2018).

  159. 159.

    Robert Wood, West Hartlepool: The Rise and Development of a Victorian New Town (West Hartlepool: West Hartlepool Corporation, 1967), 26, 32.

  160. 160.

    HAPMG, ‘Bombardment of the Hartlepools’ poster, Chas. A. Sage, c. 1914.

  161. 161.

    Frederick Miller, The Hartlepools and the Great War: A Record of Events in the History of the Hartlepools during the Great War 1914–1919 (West Hartlepool: Sage, 1920); Wood, West Hartlepool, 200–13.

  162. 162.

    The Sphere, 26 December 1914, front page. See also James Clark’s 1915 painting, The Bombardment of the Hartlepools, held by Hartlepool Museums & Galleries.

  163. 163.

    Wood, 26.

  164. 164.

    Miller, Shell-fire, 110.

  165. 165.

    Ibid., 84; TNA, AIR/1/564/16/15/79, ‘Hostile Raids and Bombardments of the English Coast’ file, ‘2nd Raid, The Hartlepools, Scarborough and Whitby. Wednesday, December 16th 1914’.

  166. 166.

    Miller, 85.

  167. 167.

    TNA, AIR/1/564/16/15/79, ‘Hostile Raids and Bombardments of the English Coast’ file, ‘2nd Raid, The Hartlepools, Scarborough and Whitby. Wednesday, December 16th 1914’, ‘Damage’.

  168. 168.

    Witt and McDermott, 111.

  169. 169.

    Miller, 105.

  170. 170.

    Norman McCord, North East England: The Region’s Development 1760–1960 (London: Batsford, 1979), 124.

  171. 171.

    Jo Byrne, ‘Hull, Fishing and the Life and Death of Trawlertown: Living the Spaces of a Trawling Port-City’ in Port Towns and Urban Cultures: International Histories of the Waterfront, c.1700–2000, eds. Brad Beaven, Karl Bell and Robert James (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 245.

  172. 172.

    Ibid., 246.

  173. 173.

    Selena Daly, Martina Salvante and Vanda Wilcox, ‘Landscapes of War: A Fertile Terrain for First World War Scholarship’ in Landscapes of the First World War, eds. Selena Daly, Martina Salvante and Vanda Wilcox (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 5, 8.

  174. 174.

    Wood, 42; Miller, 42.

  175. 175.

    Wood, 41.

  176. 176.

    Miller, 47.

  177. 177.

    Ernest E. Taylor, The ‘Handy’ Guide Series: Scarborough and Yorkshire Coast (Darlington: “Northern Echo”, 1919), 11.

  178. 178.

    Jack Binns, The History of Scarborough, North Yorkshire: From Earliest Times to the Year 2000 (Pickering: Blackthorn, 2001), 277, 290.

  179. 179.

    Anya Chapman and Duncan Light, ‘The “Heritagisation” of the British Seaside Resort: the Rise of the “Old Penny Arcade”’, Journal of Heritage Tourism, 6 (3) (2011), 210.

  180. 180.

    V.S. Pritchett, quoted in John K. Walton, The British Seaside: Holidays and Resorts in the Twentieth Century (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 53.

  181. 181.

    Ibid.

  182. 182.

    Binns, Scarborough, 290, 295.

  183. 183.

    Ibid., 296–7; John K. Walton, The English Seaside Resort: A Social History (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1983), 213.

  184. 184.

    Binns, 321, 324.

  185. 185.

    Ernest E. Taylor, The ‘Handy’ Guide Series: Scarborough and Yorkshire Coast (Darlington: “Northern Echo”, 1919), 16; Ann Day and Ken Lunn, ‘British Maritime Heritage: Carried Along by the Currents?’, International Journal of Heritage Studies, 9 (4) (2003), 303.

  186. 186.

    M.R.G. Conzen, ‘The Growth and Character of Whitby’ in A Survey of Whitby and the Surrounding Area, ed. G.H.J. Daysh (Windsor: The Shakespeare Head Press, 1958), 71.

  187. 187.

    Ibid., 72.

  188. 188.

    J.W. House, ‘Whitby as a Resort’ in A Survey of Whitby and the Surrounding Area, ed. G.H.J. Daysh (Windsor: The Shakespeare Head Press, 1958), 147.

  189. 189.

    Ibid.

  190. 190.

    R. Kirby & Son, Guide to Whitby (1849), quoted in J.W. House, ‘Whitby as a Resort’, 149.

  191. 191.

    ‘Local Jottings’, Whitby Gazette, 25 September 1914, 2; ‘Whitby Urban District Council: The Purchase of the Spa Grounds’, Whitby Gazette, 17 January 1913, 11; House, ‘Whitby as a Resort’, 154.

  192. 192.

    War Office, Statistics, 678; TNA, AIR 1/564/16/15/79, H.M. Lawson to War Office, 14 June 1915.

  193. 193.

    Audoin-Rouzeau and Becker, 54–64; David R. Meddings, ‘Civilians and War: A Review and Historical Overview of the Involvement of Non-Combatant Populations in Conflict Situations’, Medicine, Conflict and Survival, 17 (1) (2001), 6–16.

  194. 194.

    Horne, ‘Remobilising’, 195.

  195. 195.

    Pat Hudson, History by Numbers: An Introduction to Quantitative Approaches (London: Arnold, 2000); Jay Winter and Jean-Louis Robert, eds., Capital Cities at War, Vol. I: Paris, London, Berlin 1914–1919 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Paola Filippucci, ‘Postcards from the Past: War, Landscape and Place in Argonne, France’ in Contested Objects: Material Memories of the Great War, eds. Nicholas J. Saunders and Paul Cornish (Abingdon: Routledge, 2009), 220–236; Nicholas J. Saunders, Trench Art: Materialities and Memories of War (Oxford: Berg, 2003).

  196. 196.

    Thomas Gallant, ‘Long Time Coming, Long Time Gone: The Past, Present and Future of Social History’, Historein, 12 (2013), 17.

  197. 197.

    Richard Grassby, ‘Material Culture and Cultural History’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 35 (4) (2005), 591–2.

  198. 198.

    Ibid.

  199. 199.

    Christopher Tilley, ‘Objectification’ in Handbook of Material Culture, eds. Christopher Tilley, Webb Keane, Susan Kuechler, Mike Rowlands and Patricia Spyer (London: Sage, 2006), 61.

  200. 200.

    Ibid.

  201. 201.

    Saunders, Trench Art, 11.

  202. 202.

    Ibid., 35.

  203. 203.

    See ‘Category 2: Civilians, 1914–1939’ in Ibid., 45–9.

  204. 204.

    Susan R. Grayzel, At Home and Under Fire: Air Raids and Culture in Britain from the Great War to the Blitz (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012); David Monger, ‘Soldiers, Propaganda and Ideas of Home in First World War Britain’, Cultural and Social History, 8 (3) (2011), 331–354; Tammy M. Proctor, Civilians in a World at War, 1914–1918 (New York: New York University Press, 2010); Jessica Meyer, Men of War: Masculinity and the First World War in Britain (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).

  205. 205.

    Grayzel, At Home. See also, Holman, Next War; Page, Architectures of Survival.

  206. 206.

    Dodsworth, 39.

  207. 207.

    Keil, ‘States of Exception’.

  208. 208.

    Redford, ‘Sea Blindness’, 73; Longmate, Island Fortress, 443; Hein, ‘Port Cityscapes’, 9–11.

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Reeve, M. (2021). Introduction. In: Bombardment, Public Safety and Resilience in English Coastal Communities during the First World War. Global Studies in Social and Cultural Maritime History. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86851-2_1

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