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The Sociology of Time or Temporalized Sociology

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The Sociology of Time

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Abstract

The only thing that can be stated without any doubt is that attempts to solve the problem of time in sociology are very diverse. Individual approaches are often not close and even dissimilar in their general starting points. The difference is sometimes so great that it is difficult to believe that all the researchers involved are dealing with the same phenomenon.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Since then, especially during the 1990s, in sociology the interest in time has declined somewhat again and has been replaced by other fashion topics.

  2. 2.

    M. Schöps [1980] Zeit und Gesellschaft; R. H. Lauer [1981] Temporal Man; W. Bergmann [1981] Die Zeitstrukturen sozialer Systeme; H.-W. Hohn [1984] Die Zerstörung der Zeit; J. T. Fraser [1987] Time—The Familiar Stranger; J. Rifkin, Time Wars [1987]; N. Elias, Über die Zeit [1988]; M. Young [1988] The Metronomic Society; H. Nowotny [1989] Eigenzeit; G. Dux [1989] Die Zeit in der Geschichte; A. Kellerman [1989] Time, Space, and Society; G. Pronovost [1989] The Sociology of Time; B. Adam [1990] Time and Social Theory; F. Ferrarotti [1990]; Time, Memory, and Society; P. Baert [1992] Time, Self and Social Being; A. Nassehi [1993] Die Zeit der Gesellschaft; R. Sue [1994] Temps et ordre social; B. Adam [1995] Timewatch; A. Schlote [1996] Widersprüche sozialer Zeit; Safranski, R. [2015] Zeit.

  3. 3.

    Horvat M. ed. [1984] Das Phänomen Zeit; Fürstenberg F. and Mörth I. eds. [1986] Zeit als Strukturelement von Lebenswelt und Gesellschaft; Freig R. and Erlinger H. D. eds. [1986] Zeit – Zeitlichkeit – Zeiterleben; Kamper D. and Wulf Ch. eds. [1987] Die sterbende Zeit; Young M. and Schuller, T. eds. [1988] The Rhythms of Society; Zoll R. ed. [1988] Zerstörung und Wiederaneignung von Zeit; Aschoff J. ed. [1989] Die Zeit; R. Wendorff ed. [1989] Im Netz der Zeit; J. Hassard ed. [1990] The Sociology of Time; Held M. and Geissler K. A. eds. [1993] Ökologie der Zeit; Sandbothe M. and Zimmerli W. Ch. eds. [1994] Zeit – Medien – Wahrnehmung.

  4. 4.

    H. J. Schubert [1987] Zeit als Instrument der Sozialforschung; A. Abbott [2001] Time Matters.

  5. 5.

    E. T. Hall [1983] The Dance of Life; A. Gell [1992] The Anthropology of Time; R. Bormann [2001] Raum, Zeit. Identität; J. Wendy and D. Mills eds. [2005].

  6. 6.

    T. Carlstein et al. [1978] Making Sense of Time (1), Human Activity and Time Geography (2), Time and Regional Dynamics (3); M. Grundmann and U. Hölscher [1989] Zeitgeographie; J. May and N. Thrift [2001] Timespace; D. Läpple et al. eds. [2010] Zeiten und Räume der Stadt.

  7. 7.

    J. Aschoff et al. [1989]. Die Zeit; K. Weis [1995] Was ist Zeit?

  8. 8.

    The official website of the journal is https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/journal/time-society.

  9. 9.

    See: E. Scheuch and E. Meyersohn eds. [1972]; R. A. Berk and S. Fenstermaker Berk, Sarah [1979]; J. Murphy [1981]; J. P. Rinderspacher [1985]; H.-W. Hohn [1984]; Ch. Deutschmann [1985]; C. Nyland [1990]; Fromme J. et al. eds. [1990]; Auer, Frank et al. eds. [1990]; K. Blanke et al. [1996]; R. Simsa [1996]; F. Fürstenberg et al. eds. [1999]; A. Brake [2003].

  10. 10.

    The Marienthal study of M. Jahoda et al. [1975 (1933)] remains relevant.

  11. 11.

    See A. Szalai ed. [1972]; M. Garhammer [1999]; J. Merz and M. Ehling eds. [1999].

  12. 12.

    See W. Blass [1980], A. S. Harvey et al. [1984]; M. Jäckel [2012].

  13. 13.

    See F. Best [1980].

  14. 14.

    See E. Hildebrandt and G. Linne eds [2000]; M. Gerding [2009].

  15. 15.

    Se for example V. Bryson [2007].

  16. 16.

    The process of maturation of cognitive abilities enabling temporal operations was analysed by J. Piaget in the work “Le développement de la notion de temps chez l’enfant” from 1946. Another important figure who dealt with temporal consciousness from a psychological point of view was K. Lewin, whose theory inspired a whole direction of time orientation research, known as Future Time Orientation.

  17. 17.

    See Sect. 4.3.

  18. 18.

    In their joint study, Lewis A. Coser and Rose Laub Coser tried to define and describe the basic types of dominant time perspectives in American culture. They proceeded from the assumption that the future orientation was dominant for this culture (leaving aside the perspective where the orientation towards the past prevailed, although they admitted that in certain groups interest in the past may outweigh interest and primary concern for the present and future). The first type that Coser talks about represented a conformist—institutionally approved—individualistic and active orientation. The second type was associated with a collective orientation. It could: (a) share the individualistic ideals of its culture but turn away from the individualistic model of action (a collective active type oriented to the individual future), or it could (b) create collective symbols of future society through collective action in the present (a collective active type oriented to the collective future and utopian time perspective). The third and fourth types were characterized by their passive time orientations . They either “quietly” expected events to “become” (a collective and passive type with a chiliastic time perspective) or indulged in hedonistic behaviour individually (an individualistic and passive type with a hedonistic time perspective) [Coser and Coser 1963: 640–645].

  19. 19.

    See G. Kirsch et al. eds. [1988].

  20. 20.

    In the year 1974, they published a common article on the same topic—A. O’Rand and R. A. Ellis [Rand and Ellis 1974: 53–61].

  21. 21.

    See S. Lash et al. eds. [1998]; A. Bluedorn [2002].

  22. 22.

    See J. Alan [1989]; H.-G. Borse et al. [1993]; M. Meitzler [2011].

  23. 23.

    See F. Benthaus-Apel [1995].

  24. 24.

    Se: M. Young 1988; M. Held and K. A. Geißler eds. [1995].

  25. 25.

    J. Horton’s study Time and Cool People (1967) draws attention to so-called street time, which manifests itself in the street culture of the slums of the USA. This time is not structured by time schedules and hour time, but by a sequence of events on the street (Horton in 1967 [Bergmann 1983: 490]).

  26. 26.

    See K. Lüscher [1986], K. J. Daly [1996].

  27. 27.

    See R. Dollase et al. eds. [2000]; E. Shove et al. eds. [2009]; M. G. Flaherty [2011].

  28. 28.

    See U. Mückenberger et al. [2012].

  29. 29.

    See B. Wiens [1996]; H. Schilling ed. [2002].

  30. 30.

    Remarkable in this respect for example is the work of A. Bellebaum [1990] Langeweile, Überdruss und Lebenssinn, dealing with the historical evolution of the phenomenon of boredom and long moments.

  31. 31.

    See K. A. Geißler et al. [2006].

  32. 32.

    See R. E. Goodin et al. [2008].

  33. 33.

    See E. Weik [1998]; J. Gershuny [2000].

  34. 34.

    While examining the transformation processes in post-communist countries, R. Dahrendorf used the notions “hour of (constitutional) lawyers”, “hour of politicians”, and “hour of citizens” [Dahrendorf 1990: 79–93]. These hours start in a certain sequence and have different timings.

  35. 35.

    See K. Beck [1994]; G. Ch. Bukow et al. [2012]; A. C. T. Geppert and Kössler, Till eds. [2015].

  36. 36.

    See K. Backhaus and H. Bonus eds. [1998]; Borscheid 2007; V. King and B. Gerisch eds. [2009]; H. Rosa [2005]; F. Vostal [2016]. There is also talk of a “time crunch” and the “tyranny of the moment” [Eriksen 2001].

  37. 37.

    See J. J. Hesse and Ch. Zöpel eds. [1987]; K. H. Hörning et al. [1997]; M. Baeriswyl [2000]; G. Crow and S. Heath eds. [2002]; R. Hassan and R. E. Purser eds. [2007];

  38. 38.

    Many authors today express their interest in the issue outside this current of new historical sociology, and it is difficult to classify them conclusively in any way. Such an author is, for example, the American sociologist Randall Collins [1999], who, in addition to micro-sociology, also tries to develop macro-sociological, historically oriented research.

  39. 39.

    The concept of Axial Age (Achsenzeit) was formulated before Eisenstadt by Karl Jaspers. Jaspers highlighted the period from the eighth century BC to the second century BC, when new revolutionary thinking emerged in China, India, and also in the West (Plato’s philosophy and followed by Christianity in the West, Buddhism in India, Confucianism and Taoism in China). Eisenstadt [2007: 253] shifted this span to the period from the fifth century BC to the first century AD.

  40. 40.

    The cyclical development, which has been observed since about the end of the first quarter of the nineteenth century, is characterized by manifestation in economies based on a market mechanism.

    Short-term cycles were described in the 1920s by Joseph Kitchin, who saw their source in companies’ decisions about production levels, or more precisely, in their delayed reactions to economic developments. When the economy is doing well, companies respond by increasing production, as they expect large sales of goods in the future. After some time, however, there is a glut on the market and sales fall, which forces companies to reduce production. This occurs, according to Kitchin, in cycles of three to five years.

    Clément Juglar revealed cycles with medium-term periodicity in the second half of the nineteenth century. This is the periodicity with which economic crises appear at the same time in practically all developed countries. The cycles discovered by Juglar are 7 to 11 years long and have several phases. This periodicity is associated with investments in fixed capital; periods of increased depreciation and increased investment are periodically repeated in individual cycles. In the nineteenth century, the four phases of these cycles were denominated: boom, crisis, depression, and recovery (when the economy reaches a pre-crisis peak). Later, a slightly different phasing began to be used: peak, contraction (recession), bottom, expansion. However, Kuznetsov’s cycles of 15 to 20 years are also characterized by medium-term periodicity. Simon Kuznetsov observed them in real estate markets, and therefore they are sometimes referred to as building cycles. Their dynamics is based on demographic processes and changes in construction activity (associated with the renewal of basic infrastructure).

    Long-term cycles were described, and their mechanism explained, by Nikolai Dmitriyevich Kondratiev. So-called Kondratiev waves range from 45 to 70 years and are caused by changes in technologies and radical innovations, new industries, and branches of production. The first wave began with the opening of the industrial revolution, and was associated with the expansion of the steam engine. The dominant force of the second wave was the development of railways, the steel industry, and industrial chemistry. The third wave was related to the expansion of the power industry, electrical engineering, automotive and aerospace industries. The fourth wave began after World War II, based on nuclear energy, the microchip, and cosmonautics. Currently talked about is the fifth wave, in which the Internet plays the role of initiator.

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    Jiří Šubrt

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Šubrt, J. (2021). The Sociology of Time or Temporalized Sociology. In: The Sociology of Time. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-83289-6_8

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