Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Plant-Based Diets in the Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease

Part of the book series: Contemporary Cardiology ((CONCARD))

  • 1150 Accesses

Abstract

A healthy plant-based diet (PBD), which consists of mostly plant-derived foods and abstains from animal products, has been shown to be effective in managing risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and in reducing adverse CVD outcomes. PBDs have been shown to have beneficial effects in the prevention of coronary artery disease, hypertension, cerebrovascular accident, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and heart failure and may also reduce cardiovascular mortality. Potential mechanisms for these benefits include reduction in atherogenic lipid levels (LDL-C and non-HDL-C), presence of anti-atherogenic compounds such as polyphenols and fibers, and avoidance of pro-atherogenic compounds found in animal products. Structured PBD/lifestyle programs have been developed, and while each varies in composition, all programs attempt to provide comprehensive recommendations for implementing a PBD to reduce CVD risk. Further research is needed to better understand the full range of benefits, and potential limitations, of a PBD and related structured diet/lifestyle programs. In clinical practice, recommendations for a healthy PBD should align with preferences of the individual patient in order to maximize both quality of life and cardiovascular benefit.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Tuso P, Stoll SR, Li WW. A plant-based diet, atherogenesis, and coronary artery disease prevention. Perm J. 2015 Winter;19(1):62–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Hever J, Cronise RJ. Plant-based nutrition for healthcare professionals: implementing diet as a primary modality in the prevention and treatment of chronic disease. J Geriatr Cardiol. 2017;14(5):355–68.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Pawlak R, Lester SE, Babatunde T. The prevalence of cobalamin deficiency among vegetarians assessed by serum vitamin B12: a review of literature. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2014;68(5):541–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Davey GK, Spencer EA, Appleby PN, Allen NE, Knox KH, Key TJ. EPIC-Oxford: lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33 883 meat-eaters and 31 546 non meat-eaters in the UK. Public Health Nutr. 2003;6(3):259–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. O’Sullivan TA, Hafekost K, Mitrou F, Lawrence D. Food sources of saturated fat and the association with mortality: a meta-analysis. Am J Public Health. 2013;103(9):e31–42.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Ahluwalia N, Genoux A, Ferrieres J, Perret B, Carayol M, Drouet L, et al. Iron status is associated with carotid atherosclerotic plaques in middle-aged adults. J Nutr. 2010;140(4):812–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Chemicals in meat cooked at high temperatures and cancer risk [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2020 Sep 5]. Available from: http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/causes-prevention/risk/diet/cooked-meats-fact-sheet

  8. Uribarri J, Woodruff S, Goodman S, Cai W, Chen X, Pyzik R, et al. Advanced glycation end products in foods and a practical guide to their reduction in the diet. J Am Diet Assoc. 2010;110(6):911–6.e12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Koeth RA, Wang Z, Levison BS, Buffa JA, Org E, Sheehy BT, et al. Intestinal microbiota metabolism of L-carnitine, a nutrient in red meat, promotes atherosclerosis. Nat Med. 2013;19(5):576–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Martin PT, Camboni M, Xu R, Golden B, Chandrasekharan K, Wang C-M, et al. N-Glycolylneuraminic acid deficiency worsens cardiac and skeletal muscle pathophysiology in α-sarcoglycan-deficient mice. Glycobiology. 2013;23(7):833–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  11. Estruch R, Ros E, Salas-Salvadó J, Covas M-I, Corella D, Arós F, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet. N Engl J Med. 2013;368(14):1279–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D, et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the dietary approaches to stop hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(1):3–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Orlich MJ, Singh PN, Sabaté J, Jaceldo-Siegl K, Fan J, Knutsen S, et al. Vegetarian dietary patterns and mortality in Adventist Health Study 2. JAMA Intern Med. 2013;173(13):1230–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Satija A, Bhupathiraju SN, Spiegelman D, Chiuve SE, Manson JE, Willett W, et al. Healthful and unhealthful plant-based diets and the risk of coronary heart disease in U.S. adults. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;70(4):411–22.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Hyunju K, Caulfield Laura E, Vanessa G-L, Steffen Lyn M, Josef C, Rebholz Casey M. Plant-based diets are associated with a lower risk of incident cardiovascular disease, cardiovascular disease mortality, and all-cause mortality in a general population of middle-aged adults. J Am Heart Assoc. 2019;8(16):e012865.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Martínez-González MA, Sánchez-Tainta A, Corella D, Salas-Salvadó J, Ros E, Arós F, et al. A provegetarian food pattern and reduction in total mortality in the Prevención con Dieta Mediterránea (PREDIMED) study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;100(Suppl 1):320S–8S.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Patel H, Chandra S, Alexander S, Soble J, Williams KA Sr. Plant-based nutrition: An essential component of cardiovascular disease prevention and management. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2017;19(10):104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Kahleova H, Levin S, Barnard N. Cardio-metabolic benefits of plant-based diets. Nutrients [Internet]. 2017;9(8). Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9080848

  19. Yokoyama Y, Levin SM, Barnard ND. Association between plant-based diets and plasma lipids: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Rev. 2017;75(9):683–98.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Wang F, Zheng J, Yang B, Jiang J, Fu Y, Li D. Effects of vegetarian diets on blood lipids: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Am Heart Assoc. 2015;4(10):e002408.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Yokoyama Y, Barnard ND, Levin SM, Watanabe M. Vegetarian diets and glycemic control in diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther. 2014;4(5):373–82.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Kahleova H, Matoulek M, Malinska H, Oliyarnik O, Kazdova L, Neskudla T, et al. Vegetarian diet improves insulin resistance and oxidative stress markers more than conventional diet in subjects with type 2 diabetes. Diabet Med. 2011;28(5):549–59.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Menzel J, Biemann R, Longree A, Isermann B, Mai K, Schulze MB, et al. Associations of a vegan diet with inflammatory biomarkers. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):1933.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Melina V, Craig W, Levin S. Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics: Vegetarian diets. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2016;116(12):1970–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Vegetarian, vegan and meals without meat [Internet]. [cited 2020 Sep 13]. Available from: https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-eating/eat-smart/nutrition-basics/vegetarian-vegan-and-meals-without-meat

  26. Appendix 5. USDA Food Patterns: Healthy Vegetarian Eating Pattern [Internet]. [cited 2020 Sep 13]. Available from: https://health.gov/our-work/food-nutrition/2015-2020-dietary-guidelines/guidelines/appendix-5/

  27. Leading Causes of Death [Internet]. 2020 [cited 2020 Sep 13]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/leading-causes-of-death.htm

  28. Allen KE, Gumber D, Ostfeld RJ. Heart failure and a plant-based diet. a case-report and literature review [Internet]. Vol. 6, Front Nutr. 2019. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2019.00082

  29. Satija A, Hu FB. Plant-based diets and cardiovascular health [Internet]. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2018;28:437–41. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tcm.2018.02.004

  30. Budoff MJ, Bhatt DL, Kinninger A, Lakshmanan S, Muhlestein JB, Le VT, et al. Effect of icosapent ethyl on progression of coronary atherosclerosis in patients with elevated triglycerides on statin therapy: final results of the EVAPORATE trial. Eur Heart J. 2020;41(40):3925–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Nicholls SJ, Puri R, Anderson T, Ballantyne CM, Cho L, Kastelein JJP, et al. Effect of Evolocumab on progression of coronary disease in statin-treated patients: the GLAGOV randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2016;316(22):2373–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Ornish D, Scherwitz LW, Billings JH, Brown SE, Gould KL, Merritt TA, et al. Intensive lifestyle changes for reversal of coronary heart disease. JAMA. 1998;280(23):2001–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Beeson WL, Mills PK, Phillips RL, Andress M, Fraser GE. Chronic disease among seventh-day Adventists, a low-risk group. Rationale, methodology, and description of the population. Cancer. 1989;64(3):570–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Berkel J, de Waard F. Mortality pattern and life expectancy of seventh-day Adventists in the Netherlands. Int J Epidemiol. 1983;12(4):455–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Kwok CS, Umar S, Myint PK, Mamas MA, Loke YK. Vegetarian diet, seventh day Adventists and risk of cardiovascular mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol. 2014;176(3):680–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Borgi L, Curhan GC, Willett WC, Hu FB, Satija A, Forman JP. Long-term intake of animal flesh and risk of developing hypertension in three prospective cohort studies. J Hypertens. 2015;33(11):2231–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Yokoyama Y, Nishimura K, Barnard ND, Takegami M, Watanabe M, Sekikawa A, et al. Vegetarian Diets and Blood Pressure [Internet]. Vol. 174, JAMA Internal Medicine. 2014. p. 577. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.14547

  38. Steffen LM, Kroenke CH, Yu X, Pereira MA, Slattery ML, Van Horn L, et al. Associations of plant food, dairy product, and meat intakes with 15-y incidence of elevated blood pressure in young black and white adults: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82(6):1169–77; quiz 1363–4

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Borgi L, Muraki I, Satija A, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Forman JP. Fruit and vegetable consumption and the incidence of hypertension in three prospective cohort studies [Internet]. Hypertension. 2016;67:288–93. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1161/hypertensionaha.115.06497

  40. O’Donnell MJ, Chin SL, Rangarajan S, Xavier D, Liu L, Zhang H, et al. Global and regional effects of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with acute stroke in 32 countries (INTERSTROKE): a case-control study. Lancet. 2016;388(10046):761–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Hu D, Huang J, Wang Y, Zhang D, Qu Y. Fruits and vegetables consumption and risk of stroke: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Stroke. 2014;45(6):1613–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Larsson SC, Orsini N. Fish consumption and the risk of stroke [Internet]. Stroke. 2011;42:3621–3. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1161/strokeaha.111.630319

  43. Wang C, Harris WS, Chung M, Lichtenstein AH, Balk EM, Kupelnick B. et al., n−3 Fatty acids from fish or fish-oil supplements, but not α-linolenic acid, benefit cardiovascular disease outcomes in primary- and secondary-prevention studies: a systematic review [Internet]. Am Clin Nutr. 2006;84:5–17. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/84.1.5

  44. Tonstad S, Stewart K, Oda K, Batech M, Herring RP, Fraser GE. Vegetarian diets and incidence of diabetes in the Adventist Health Study-2. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2013;23(4):292–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Lara KM, Levitan EB, Gutierrez OM, Shikany JM, Safford MM, Judd SE, et al. Dietary patterns and incident heart failure in U.S. adults without known coronary disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;73(16):2036–45.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Rautiainen S, Levitan EB, Mittleman MA, Wolk A. Fruit and vegetable intake and rate of heart failure: a population-based prospective cohort of women. Eur J Heart Fail. 2015;17(1):20–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Hicks KA, Mahaffey KW, Mehran R, Nissen SE, Wiviott SD, Dunn B, et al. 2017 cardiovascular and stroke endpoint definitions for clinical trials. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2018;71(9):1021–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Huang T, Yang B, Zheng J, Li G, Wahlqvist ML, Li D. Cardiovascular disease mortality and cancer incidence in vegetarians: a meta-analysis and systematic review. Ann Nutr Metab. 2012;60(4):233–40.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Satija A, Bhupathiraju SN, Rimm EB, Spiegelman D, Chiuve SE, Borgi L, et al. Plant-based dietary patterns and incidence of type 2 diabetes in US men and women: results from three prospective cohort studies. PLoS Med. 2016;13(6):e1002039.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Mishra S, Xu J, Agarwal U, Gonzales J, Levin S, Barnard ND. A multicenter randomized controlled trial of a plant-based nutrition program to reduce body weight and cardiovascular risk in the corporate setting: the GEICO study. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2013;67(7):718–24.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. McMacken M, Shah S. A plant-based diet for the prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes. J Geriatr Cardiol. 2017;14(5):342–54.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Barnard ND, Cohen J, Jenkins DJA, Turner-McGrievy G, Gloede L, Jaster B, et al. A Low-fat vegan diet improves glycemic control and cardiovascular risk factors in a randomized clinical trial in individuals with Type 2 diabetes [Internet]. Diabetes Care. 2006;29:1777–83. Available from: https://doi.org/10.2337/dc06-0606

  53. Mensink RP, Katan MB. Effect of dietary trans fatty acids on high-density and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in healthy subjects. N Engl J Med. 1990;323(7):439–45.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Gardner CD, Coulston A, Chatterjee L, Rigby A, Spiller G, Farquhar JW. The effect of a plant-based diet on plasma lipids in hypercholesterolemic adults: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2005;142(9):725–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Ferdowsian HR, Barnard ND. Effects of plant-based diets on plasma lipids [Internet]. Am J Cardiol. 2009;104:947–56. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2009.05.032

  56. Sacks FM, Carey VJ, Anderson CAM, Miller ER 3rd, Copeland T, Charleston J, et al. Effects of high vs low glycemic index of dietary carbohydrate on cardiovascular disease risk factors and insulin sensitivity: the OmniCarb randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2014;312(23):2531–41.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Siri-Tarino PW. Effects of diet on high-density lipoprotein cholesterol [Internet]. Curr Atheroscler Rep. 2011;13:453–60. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11883-011-0207-y

  58. Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester ADM, Katan MB. Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;77(5):1146–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Jenkins DJA, Wong JMW, Kendall CWC, Esfahani A, Ng VWY, Leong TCK, et al. The effect of a plant-based low-carbohydrate (“Eco-Atkins”) diet on body weight and blood lipid concentrations in hyperlipidemic subjects [Internet]. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169:1046. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2009.115

  60. Manach C, Scalbert A, Morand C, Rémésy C, Jiménez L. Polyphenols: food sources and bioavailability [Internet]. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;79:727–47. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/79.5.727

  61. Khurana S, Venkataraman K, Hollingsworth A, Piche M, Tai TC. Polyphenols: benefits to the cardiovascular system in health and in aging. Nutrients. 2013;5(10):3779–827.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Hollenberg NK. Red wine polyphenols enhance endothelial nitric oxide synthase expression and subsequent nitric oxide release from endothelial cells. Curr Hypertens Rep. 2003;5(4):287–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Rienks J, Barbaresko J, Nöthlings U. Association of polyphenol biomarkers with cardiovascular disease and mortality risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies [Internet]. Nutrients. 2017;9:415. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu9040415

  64. Rebello CJ, O’Neil CE, Greenway FL. Dietary fiber and satiety: the effects of oats on satiety. Nutr Rev. 2016;74(2):131–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Brown L, Rosner B, Willett WW, Sacks FM. Cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary fiber: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;69(1):30–42.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Smith CE, Tucker KL. Health benefits of cereal fibre: a review of clinical trials. Nutr Res Rev. 2011;24(1):118–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Soliman GA. Dietary fiber, atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular disease. Nutrients [Internet]. 019;11(5):1155. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051155

  68. Post RE, Mainous AG, King DE, Simpson KN. Dietary fiber for the treatment of Type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis [Internet]. J Am Board Fam Med. 2012;25:16–23. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.2012.01.110148

  69. Quiñones M, Miguel M, Aleixandre A. Beneficial effects of polyphenols on cardiovascular disease [Internet]. Pharmacol Res. 2013;68:125–31. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2012.10.018

  70. Petersson H, Basu S, Cederholm T, Risérus U. Serum fatty acid composition and indices of stearoyl-CoA desaturase activity are associated with systemic inflammation: longitudinal analyses in middle-aged men. Br J Nutr. 2008;99(6):1186–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Lavie CJ, Milani RV, Mehra MR, Ventura HO. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular diseases. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54(7):585–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Saini RK, Keum Y-S. Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Dietary sources, metabolism, and significance — A review [Internet]. Vol. 203, Life Sci. 2018. p. 255–267. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2018.04.049

  73. Farvid MS, Ding M, Pan A, Sun Q, Chiuve SE, Steffen LM, et al. Dietary linoleic acid and risk of coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Circulation. 2014;130(18):1568–78.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Carson JAS, Lichtenstein AH, Anderson CAM, Appel LJ, Kris-Etherton PM, Meyer KA, et al. Dietary cholesterol and cardiovascular risk: a science advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2020;141(3):e39–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Janeiro M, Ramírez M, Milagro F, Martínez J, Solas M. Implication of Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) in disease: potential biomarker or new therapeutic target [Internet]. Nutrients. 2018;10:1398. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10101398

  76. Fang X, An P, Wang H, Wang X, Shen X, Li X, et al. Dietary intake of heme iron and risk of cardiovascular disease: a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2015;25(1):24–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Chemicals in meat cooked at high temperatures and cancer risk [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2020 Sep 16]. Available from: https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet/cooked-meats-fact-sheet

  78. Young VR, Pellett PL. Plant proteins in relation to human protein and amino acid nutrition [Internet]. Am J Clin Nutr. 1994;59:1203S–12S. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/59.5.1203s

  79. Hunt JR. Bioavailability of iron, zinc, and other trace minerals from vegetarian diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;78(3 Suppl):633S–9S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Craig WJ, Mangels AR. American dietetic association. Position of the American dietetic association: vegetarian diets. J Am Diet Assoc. 2009;109(7):1266–82.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Saunders AV, Craig WJ, Baines SK, Posen JS. Iron and vegetarian diets. Med J Aust. 2013;199(S4):S11–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Hallberg L, Brune M, Rossander L. The role of vitamin C in iron absorption. Int J Vitam Nutr Res Suppl. 1989;30:103–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Roohani N, Hurrell R, Kelishadi R, Schulin R. Zinc and its importance for human health: An integrative review. J Res Med Sci. 2013;18(2):144–57.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Hunt JR. Moving toward a plant-based diet: Are Iron and Zinc at Risk? [Internet]. Nutr Rev. 2002;60:127–34. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1301/00296640260093788

  85. Gibson RS, Heath A-LM, Szymlek-Gay EA. Is iron and zinc nutrition a concern for vegetarian infants and young children in industrialized countries? Am J Clin Nutr. 2014;100(Suppl 1):459S–68S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Haddad EH, Berk LS, Kettering JD, Hubbard RW, Peters WR. Dietary intake and biochemical, hematologic, and immune status of vegans compared with nonvegetarians. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999;70(3 Suppl):586S–93S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Quinn C. Vitamin D: the sunshine vitamin [Internet]. Br J Nurs. 2010;19:1160–3. Available from: https://doi.org/10.12968/bjon.2010.19.18.79048

  88. Chan J, Jaceldo-Siegl K, Fraser GE. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D status of vegetarians, partial vegetarians, and nonvegetarians: the Adventist Health Study-2 [Internet]. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89:1686S–92S. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736x

  89. Rizzo G, Laganà AS, Rapisarda AMC, La Ferrera GMG, Buscema M, Rossetti P, et al. Vitamin B12 among vegetarians: status, assessment and supplementation. Nutrients [Internet]. 2016;8(12). Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu8120767

  90. Allen LH. Causes of vitamin B12 and folate deficiency. Food Nutr Bull. 2008;(2 Suppl):29, S20–S34; discussion S35–7.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Langan RC, Goodbred AJ. Vitamin B12 deficiency: recognition and management. Am Fam Physician. 2017;96(6):384–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. O’Leary F, Samman S. Vitamin B12 in Health and Disease [Internet]. Nutrients. 2010;2:299–316. Available from: https://doi.org/10.3390/nu2030299

  93. Pawlak R. Is vitamin B12 deficiency a risk factor for cardiovascular disease in vegetarians? Am J Prev Med. 2015;48(6):e11–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Collaboration HS. Homocysteine studies collaboration. homocysteine and risk of ischemic heart disease and stroke [Internet]. JAMA. 2002;288:2015. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.16.2015

  95. Mechanisms of disease: Homocysteine and atherothrombosis [Internet]. Transfus Med Rev. 1998;12:312. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0887-7963(98)80027-8

  96. Basu A, Jenkins AJ, Stoner JA, Thorpe SR, Klein RL, Lopes-Virella MF, et al. Plasma total homocysteine and carotid intima-media thickness in type 1 diabetes: a prospective study. Atherosclerosis. 2014;236(1):188–95.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  97. Li Z, Heber D. The pritikin diet. JAMA. 2020;323(11):1104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Pritikin ICR: Pritikin intensive cardiac rehab [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2020 Sep 5]. Available from: https://www.pritikin.com/your-health/health-benefits/reverse-heart-disease/pritikin-icr.html

  99. Pritikin Diet [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2020 Sep 5]. Available from: https://www.pritikin.com/healthiest-diet/pritikin-eating-plan

  100. Anderson AL, Harris TB, Tylavsky FA, Perry SE, Houston DK, Hue TF, et al. Dietary patterns and survival of older adults. J Am Diet Assoc 2011;111(1):84–91.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Sullivan S, Samuel S. Effect of short-term Pritikin diet therapy on the metabolic syndrome. J Cardiometab Syndr. 2006;1(5):308–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Chen AK, Roberts CK, Barnard RJ. Effect of a short-term diet and exercise intervention on metabolic syndrome in overweight children. Metabolism. 2006;55(7):871–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Barnard RJ. Effects of life-style modification on serum lipids. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151(7):1389–94.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Wegge JK, Roberts CK, Ngo TH, Barnard RJ. Effect of diet and exercise intervention on inflammatory and adhesion molecules in postmenopausal women on hormone replacement therapy and at risk for coronary artery disease. Metabolism. 2004;53(3):377–81.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Roberts CK, Won D, Pruthi S, Kurtovic S, Sindhu RK, Vaziri ND, et al. Effect of a short-term diet and exercise intervention on oxidative stress, inflammation, MMP-9, and monocyte chemotactic activity in men with metabolic syndrome factors. J Appl Physiol. 2006;100(5):1657–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Decision Memo for Intensive Cardiac Rehabilitation (ICR) Program – Dr. Ornish’s Program for Reversing Heart Disease (CAG-00419N) [Internet]. [cited 2020 Sep 16]. Available from: https://www.cms.gov/medicare-coverage-database/details/nca-decision-memo.aspx?NCAId=240&ver=7&NcaName=Intensive+Cardiac+Rehabilitation+(ICR)+Program+-+Dr.+Ornish%2527s+Program+for+Reversing+Heart+Disease&bc=ACAAAAAAIAAA&siteTool=Medic

  107. Nutrition [Internet]. [cited 2020 Sep 16]. Available from: https://www.ornish.com/proven-program/nutrition/

  108. Department of Health and Human Services, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2015-2020. Simon and Schuster; 2017. 146 p.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Ma Y, Pagoto SL, Griffith JA, Merriam PA, Ockene IS, Hafner AR, et al. A dietary quality comparison of popular weight-loss plans. J Am Diet Assoc. 2007;107(10):1786–91.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  110. McCullough ML, Willett WC. Evaluating adherence to recommended diets in adults: the alternate healthy eating index. Public Health Nutr. 2006;9(1A):152–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Dansinger ML, Gleason JA, Griffith JL, Selker HP, Schaefer EJ. Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, weight watchers, and zone diets for weight loss and heart disease risk reduction: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2005;293(1):43–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Ornish D, Brown SE, Scherwitz LW, Billings JH, Armstrong WT, Ports TA, et al. Can lifestyle changes reverse coronary heart disease? The Lifestyle Heart Trial. Lancet [Internet]. 1990 Jul 21 [cited 2021 Mar 16];336(8708). Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1973470/

  113. Bessesen DH. Comparison of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and zone diets for weight loss and heart disease risk reduction: a randomized trial [Internet]. Yearbook Endocrinol. 2006;2006:151–3. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/s0084-3741(08)70337-8

  114. Plant-Based Nutrition [Internet]. [cited 2020 Sep 16]. Available from: http://www.dresselstyn.com/site/plant-based-nutrition/

  115. Esselstyn CB Jr, Gendy G, Doyle J, Golubic M, Roizen MF. A way to reverse CAD? J Fam Pract. 2014;63(7):356–64b.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Esselstyn CB Jr, Ellis SG, Medendorp SV, Crowe TD. A strategy to arrest and reverse coronary artery disease: a 5-year longitudinal study of a single physician’s practice. J Fam Pract. 1995;41(6):560–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Barnard ND, Cohen J, Jenkins DJA, Turner-McGrievy G, Gloede L, Green A, et al. A low-fat vegan diet and a conventional diabetes diet in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: a randomized, controlled, 74-wk clinical trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89(5):1588S–96S.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  118. Barnard ND, Scialli AR, Turner-McGrievy G, Lanou AJ, Glass J. The effects of a low-fat, plant-based dietary intervention on body weight, metabolism, and insulin sensitivity. Am J Med. 2005;118(9):991–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Pechey R, Monsivais P. Socioeconomic inequalities in the healthiness of food choices: exploring the contributions of food expenditures. Prev Med. 2016;88:203–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  120. Marcone MF, Madan P, Grodzinski B. An overview of the sociological and environmental factors influencing eating food behavior in Canada. Front Nutr. 2020;7:77.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  121. Brown MT, Bussell JK. Medication adherence: WHO cares? Mayo Clin Proc. 2011;86(4):304–14.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  122. Neal D. Barnard, Anthony R. Scialli, Gabrielle Turner-McGrievy, Amy J. Lanou. Acceptability of a Low-fat Vegan Diet Compares Favorably to a Step II Diet in a Randomized, Controlled Trial. J Cardiopulm Rehab. 2004;24(4):229–235.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Author notes

  1. Ashley Rosander and Aryana Pazargadi contributed equally.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of California, San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA

    Rajiv S. Vasudevan

  2. Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA

    Ashley Rosander, Aryana Pazargadi & Michael J. Wilkinson

Authors
  1. Rajiv S. Vasudevan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ashley Rosander
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Aryana Pazargadi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michael J. Wilkinson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael J. Wilkinson .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA

    Michael J. Wilkinson

  2. Center for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Leon H. Charney Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, New York University Langone Health, New York, NY, USA

    Michael S. Garshick

  3. Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA, USA

    Pam R. Taub

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Vasudevan, R.S., Rosander, A., Pazargadi, A., Wilkinson, M.J. (2021). Plant-Based Diets in the Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease. In: Wilkinson, M.J., Garshick, M.S., Taub, P.R. (eds) Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease. Contemporary Cardiology. Humana, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78177-4_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78177-4_6

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-78176-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-78177-4

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation