Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Ophthalmology of Psittaciformes: Parrots and Relatives

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Wild and Exotic Animal Ophthalmology

Abstract

Psittaciformes is an ancient order among modern birds, distributed across over 90 genera totaling nearly 400 species (Forshaw 1989; Sibley and Ahlquist 1990; Cracraft 2001; Nanda et al. 2007). Species are divided into three superfamilies. The Psittacoidea are considered true parrots and include macaws, parakeets, lories and lorikeets, budgerigars, Amazon and African gray parrots, among others. Cacatuoidea contains cockatoos and cockatiels. Strigopoidea consists of intriguing New Zealand parrots including keas (the only alpine parrot species), kakas, and kakapo (large, flightless, nocturnal parrots). Together Psittacines are found in every tropical region worldwide (Godoy 2007; Willis and Oniki 2003), with Brazil having the greatest number of representatives totaling about 85 different species (Sick and Pacheco 1997; Godoy 2007).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abrams GA, Paul-Murphy J, Murphy CJ (2002) Conjunctivitis in birds. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 5:287–309

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ackerman LJ, Benbrook SC, Walton BC (1974) Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a parrot (Amazona farinosa). Am Rev Respir Dis 109:388–390

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander AB, Griffin L, Johnston MS (2017) Radiation therapy of periorbital lymphoma in a blue-and-gold macaw (Ara ararauna). J Avian Med Surg 31:39–46

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andrade AL, Stringhini G, Bonello FL, Marinho M, Perri SHV (2002) Microbiota conjuntival de cães da cidade de Araçatuba—SP. Arq Bras Oftalmol 65:323–326

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauck L, Orosz S, Dorrestein G (1997) Avian dermatology. In: Altman RB, Clubb SL, Dorrestein GM et al (eds) Avian medicine and surgery, vol 1. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 540–562

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer GA, Spiess BM, Lutz H (1996) Exfoliative cytology of conjunctiva and cornea in domestic animals: a comparison of four collecting techniques. Vet Comp Ophthalmol 6:181–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Baumgartner R, Hoop RK, Widmer R (1994) Atypical nocardiosis in a red-lored Amazon parrot (Amazona Autumnalis Autumnalis). J Assoc Avian Vet 8:125–127. https://doi.org/10.2307/30135067

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baveleer FJ, Beynen AC (2004) Atherosclerosis in parrots. A review. Vet Q 26:50–60

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayón A, Almela RM, Talavera J (2007) Avian ophthalmology. Eur J Companion Anim Pract 17:253–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayón A, Vecino E, Albert A, Almela RM, Cozzi A, Talavera J, Fernández DPMJ (2006) Evaluation of intraocular pressure obtained by two tonometers and their correlations with corneal thickness obtained by pachymetry in raptors. Vet Ophthalmol 9:426–434

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett RA, Harrison GJ (1994) Soft tissue surgery. In: Ritchie BW, Harrison GJ, Harrison LR (eds) Avian medicine: principles and application. Wingers, Lake Worth, FL, pp 1106–1107

    Google Scholar 

  • Boström JE, Dimitrova M, Canton C et al (2016) Ultra-rapid vision in birds. PLoS One 11:e0151099

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Boström JE, Haller NK, Dimitrova M et al (2017) The flicker fusion frequency of budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) revisited. J Comp Physiol A 203:15–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Bounous DI, Schaeffer DO, Roy A (1989) Coagulase-negative staphylococcus sp. septicemia in a lovebird. J Am Vet Med Assoc 195:1120–1122

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bowles HL, Odberg E, Harrison GJ et al (2005) Surgical resolution of soft tissue disorders. In: Harrison GJ, Lightfoot T (eds) Clinical avian medicine. Spix Publishing, Palm Beach, FL

    Google Scholar 

  • Braekevelt CR, Richardson KC (1996a) Retinal photoreceptor fine structure in the Australian galah (Eolophus roseicapillus). Histol Histopathol 11:555–564

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braekevelt CR, Richardson KC (1996b) Retinal pigment epithelium fine structure in the Australian galah (Eolophus roseicapillus). Histol Histopathol 11:437–443

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brandes R, van der Wall G (1980) Nematodes behind the third eyelid of a rose-breasted bearded parrot (Psittacula alexandri). Tierarztl Prax 8:75–80

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bras ID, Gemensky-Metzler AJ, Kusewitt DF et al (2005) Immunohistochemical characterization of a malignant intraocular teratoid medulloepithelioma in a cockatiel. Vet Ophthalmol 8:59–65

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brightman AH, Burke TJ (1978) Eyelid tumor in a parakeet. Mod Vet Pract 59:683

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks DE (1997) Avian cataracts. Semin Avian Exot Pet 6:131–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks DE, Greiner EC, Walsh MT (1983) Conjunctivitis caused by Thelazia sp. in a Senegal parrot. J Am Vet Med Assoc 183:1305–1306

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buyukmihci NC, Murphy CJ, Paul-murphy J et al (1990) Eyelid malformation in four cockatiels. J Am Vet Med Assoc 196:1490–1492

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell TW (1984) Lymphoid leukosis in an Amazon parrot a case report. Proc Assoc Avian Vet Conf, pp 229–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell TW (1995) Avian hematology and cytology, 2nd edn. State University Press, Ames

    Google Scholar 

  • Canny CJ, Ward DA, Patton S, Orosz SE (1999) Microsporidian keratoconjunctivitis in a double yellow-headed Amazon parrot (Amazona ochrocephala oratrix). J Avian Med Surg 13:279–286

    Google Scholar 

  • Christen C, Richter M, Fischer I et al (2006) Unilateral evisceration of an eye following cornea and lens perforation in a sulfur-crested cockatoo (Cacatua galerita). Schwiez Arch Tierheilk 148:615–619

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clubb SL (1998) Management of psittacines to reduce mate aggression and trauma. Proc Annu Conf Assoc Avian Vet., St Paul, MN. pp 133–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clubb SL, Karpinski LG (1993) Aging in macaws. J Assoc Avian Vet 7:31–33

    Google Scholar 

  • Cococcetta C, Collarile T, Masi M et al (2021) Antemortem diagnosis of congenital glaucoma in a white-bellied caique (Pionites leucogaster). Vet Ophthalmol 24:93–96

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coimbra JP, Collin SP, Hart NS (2014) Topographic specializations in the retinal ganglion cell layer correlate with lateralized visual behavior, ecology, and evolution in cockatoos. J Comp Neurol 522:3363–3385

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corfield JR, Gsell AC, Brunton D et al (2011) Anatomical specializations for nocturnality in a critically endangered parrot, the kakapo (Strigops habroptilus). PLoS One 6:e22945

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cracraft J (2001) Avian evolution, Gondwana biogeography and the cretaceous-tertiary mass extinction event. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 268:459–469

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Darden JE, Winkel-blair AM, Edwards EE, Hoppes SM, Mansell J, Scott EM (2019) Follicular choristoma in the third eyelid of an eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus). J Am Vet Med Assoc 255:98–101

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson M (1985) Avian pox in a group of blue-fronted Amazon parrots—a 3-month study. ACVO Proceedings, vol 16

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson M (1997) Ocular consequences of trauma in raptors. Semin Avian Exot Pet 6:121–130

    Google Scholar 

  • de Araujo JL, Rodrigues-Hoffmann A, Giaretta PR et al (2019) Distribution of viral antigen and inflammatory lesions in the central nervous system of cocktiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) experimentally induced with parrot bornavirus 2. Vet Pathol 56:106–117

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Freitas Raso T, Seixas GHF, Guedes NMR et al (2006) Chlamydophila psittaci in free-living blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva) and hyacinth macaws (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. Vet Microbiol 117:235–241

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dees DD, Knollinger AM, MacLaren NE (2011) Modified evisceration technique in a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos). Vet Ophthalmol 14:341–344

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Demery ZP, Chappell J, Martin GR (2011) Vision, touch and object manipulation in Senegal parrots Poicephalus senegalus. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 278:3687–3693

    Google Scholar 

  • Diaz-figueroa O, Tully TN, Williams J et al (2006) Squamous cell carcinoma of the infraorbital sinus with fungal tracheitis and ingluvitis in an adult Solomon Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus solomonensis). J Avian Med Surg 20:113–119

    Google Scholar 

  • Diehl KA, McKinnon J-A (2016) Eye removal surgeries in exotic pets. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 19:245–267

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dieterich HJ, Fischer G, Hiller U (1988) The smooth muscle of the iris of the gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus). Z Mikrosk Anat Forsch 102:239–250

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doneley B (2016) Disorders of the eye. In: Doneley B (ed) Avian medicine and surgery practice. Manson Publishing, London, pp 133–137

    Google Scholar 

  • Doss GA, Fink DM, Mans C (2018) Assessment of sedation after intranasal administration of midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus). Am J Vet Res 79:1246–1252

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dubey JP, Hamir AN (2002) Experimental toxoplasmosis in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). J Parasitol 88:514–519

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dukes TW, Pettit JR (1983) Avian ocular neoplasia: a description of spontaneously occurring cases. Can J Comp Med 47:33–36

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Evans HE, Martin GR (1993) Organa sensuum. In: Baumel JJ (ed) Handbook of avian anatomy: nomina anatomica avium. The Nuttal Ornithological Club, Cambridge, pp 585–611

    Google Scholar 

  • Falcão MSA, Monteiro RV, Carvalho CM et al (2017a) Reference values for selected ophthalmic tests of the blue-and-yellow macaw (Ara ararauna). Pesqui Vet Bras 37:389–394

    Google Scholar 

  • Falcão MSA, Monteiro RV, Oriá AP et al (2017b) Modified Schirmer tear test and rebound tonometry in blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva). Pesqui Vet Bras 37:871–873

    Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-barral A, Orgaz JL, Baquero P et al (2014) Regulatory and functional connection of microphthalmia associated transcription factor and anti-metastatic pigment epithelium derived factor in melanoma. Neoplasia 16:529–542

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fordham M, Rosenthal K, Durham A et al (2010) Intraocular osteosarcoma in an Umbrella Cockatoo (Cacatua alba). Vet Ophthalmol 13:103–108

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Forshaw JM (1989) Parrots of the world. Landsdowne Editions, Willoughby, Australia

    Google Scholar 

  • Fricke C, Schmidt V, Cramer K et al (2009) Characterization of atherosclerosis by histochemical and immunohistochemical methods in African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus) and Amazon parrots (Amazona spp.). Avian Dis 53:466–472

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gancz AY, Malka S, Sandmeyer L et al (2005) Horner’s syndrome in a red-bellied parrot (Poicephalus rufiventris). J Avian Med Surg 19:30–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Garstang W (1895) On the habits of the kea, the sheep-eating parrot of New Zealand. Nature 1356:629–630

    Google Scholar 

  • Godoy SN (2007) Psittaciformes (Arara, Papagaio, Periquito). In: Cubas ZS, Silva JCR, Catão-Dias JL (eds) Tratado de Animais Selvagens: medicina veterinária. Roca, São Paulo, pp 222–251

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham JE, Werner JA, Lowenstine LJ et al (2003) Periorbital liposarcoma in an African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus). J Avian Med Surg 17:147–153

    Google Scholar 

  • Gralla S, Fischer D, Olerth DV et al (2016) Modified evisceration in a blue-fronted amazon (Amazona aestiva) as an ocular treatment option in parrots. J Exot Pet Med 25:7–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenacre CB, Lusby AL (2004) Physiologic responses of Amazon parrots (Amazona species) to manual restraint. J Avian Med Surg 18:19–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Griggs A (2019) Ocular surface disease in birds. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 22:53–68

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guimarães MB, Esteves CALG, Scholtz VS, et al (2004) Melanoma ocular em papagaio verdadeiro (Amazona aestiva): relato de caso. VIII Congresso ABRAVAS e XIII Encontro da Associação Brasileira de Veterinários de Animais Selvagens, Jaboticabal

    Google Scholar 

  • Gulbahar MY, Ozak A, Guvenc T et al (2005) Retrobulbar rhabdomyosarcoma in a budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus). Avian Pathol 34:486–488

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall MI (2008) The anatomical relationships between the avian eye, orbit and sclerotic ring: implications for inferring activity patterns in extinct birds. J Anat 212:781–794

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harris MC, Schorling JJ, Herring IP et al (2008) Ophthalmic examination findings in a colony of screech owls (Megascops asio). Vet Ophthalmol 11:186–192

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison GJ, Harrison LR, Fudge AM (1986) Preliminary évaluation of a case. In: Harrison GJ, Harrison LR (eds) Clinical avian medicine and surgery. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, pp 101–114

    Google Scholar 

  • Hausmann JC, Mans C, Gosling A et al (2016) Bilateral uveitis and hyphema in a Catalina macaw (Ara ararauna × Ara macao) with multicentric lymphoma. J Avian Med Surg 30:172–178

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hendrix DVH, Sims MH (2004) Electroretinography in the Hispaniolan Amazon parrot (Amazona ventralis). J Avian Med Surg 18:89–94

    Google Scholar 

  • Hiekstra KA, Nichols CR, Garnett ME et al (1998) Dietary cholesterol-induced xanthomatosis in atherosclerosis-susceptible Japanese quail (Cotunix japonica). J Comp Pathol 119:419–427

    Google Scholar 

  • Hochliethner M (1990) Cystadenoma in an African grey parrot. J Assoc Avian Vet 4:163

    Google Scholar 

  • Holt E, Rosenthal K, Shofer FS (2006) The phenol red thread tear test in large psittaciformes. Vet Ophthalmol 9:109–113

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Homberger D (2003) The comparative biomechanics of a prey–predator relationship: the adaptive morphologies of the feeding apparatus of Australian black-cockatoos and their foods as a basis for the reconstruction of the evolutionary history of the Psittaciformes. In: Vertebrate biomechanics and evolution. BIOS Scientific, Oxford, pp 203–228

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoppes S, Gurfield N, Flammer K et al (2000) Mycotic keratitis in a blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona Aestiva). J Avian Med Surg 14:185–189

    Google Scholar 

  • Hvenegaard AP, Safatle AMV, Guimarães MB et al (2009) Retrospective study of ocular disorders in Amazon parrots. Pesqui Vet Bras 29:979–984

    Google Scholar 

  • Ionascu I, Enache A (2011) Ophthalmic examination feature in exotic companion birds. Scientific works—University of Agronomical Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Bucharest series C. Vet Med 57:192–198

    Google Scholar 

  • Jacobson ER, Mladinich CR, Clubb S et al (1983) Papilloma-like virus infection in an African gray parrot. J Am Vet Med Assoc 183:1307–1308

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jaensch SM, Butler R, O’Hara A et al (2002) Atypical multiple, papilliform, xanthomatous, cutaneous neoplasia in a goose (Anser anser). Aust Vet J 80:277–280

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones MP, Pierce KE, Ward D (2007a) Avian vision: a review of form and function with special consideration to birds of prey. J Exot Pet Med 16:69–87

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones A, Kirchgessner M, Mitchell MA et al (2007b) Diagnostic challenge. J Exot Pet Med 16:122–125

    Google Scholar 

  • Kafarnik C, Fritsche J, Reese S (2007) In vivo confocal microscopy in the normal corneas of cats, dogs and birds. Vet Ophthalmol 10:222–230

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karpinski LG, Clubb SL (1985) Postpox ocular problems in blue-fronted amazons and blue-headed Pionus parrots. Proc Assoc of Avian Vet, pp 92–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Karpinski LG, Clubb SL (1986) Clinical aspects of ophthalmology in caged birds. In: Kirk RW (ed) Current veterinary therapy IX. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, pp 616–621

    Google Scholar 

  • Kern TJ, Colitz CMH (2013) Exotic animal ophthalmology. In: Gelatt KN, Gilger BC, Kern TJ (eds) Veterinary ophthalmology. Wiley-Blackwell, Hoboken, pp 1765–1782

    Google Scholar 

  • Keymer IF (1977) Cataracts in birds. Avian Pathol 6:335–341

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kibar M, Cakir L, Oner A et al (2014) Surgical removal of a luxated lens in a common buzzard (Buteo buteo). Rev Med Vet 165:89–92

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim KT, Lee SH, Kwak D (2016) Developmental morphology of Knemidokoptes pilae on an infested red-crowned parakeet (Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae). J Vet Med Sci 78:509–512

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knott B, Davies WI, Carvalho LS et al (2013) How parrots see their colours: novelty in the visual pigments of Platycercus elegans. J Exp Biol 216:4454–4461

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korbel R (1991) Update on ornithoophthalmology. Tierarztl Prax 19:497–507

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korbel R, Reese S, Hegner K (1998) Anatomical and clinical examination of the iridocorneal angle (gonioscopy) and the ciliary body in various bird species. Proc. 2nd Conf Europ ass zoo wildlife vet, Chester/UK, vol 2, pp 329–342

    Google Scholar 

  • Korbel R, Schäffer EH (1991) The occurrence of conjunctivitis of unknown etiology in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus, Shaw 1805). Tierarztl Prax 19:659–663

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koutsos EA, Tell LA, Woods LW et al (2003) Adult cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) at maintenance are more sensitive to diets containing excess vitamin a than to vitamin A-deficient diets. J Nutr 133:1898–1902

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kubiak M, Roach L, Eatwell K (2016) The influence of a combined butorphanol and midazolam pre-medication on anesthesia in psittacid species. J Avian Med Surg 30:317–323

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lacerda RP, Obón E, Peña MT et al (2014) Comparative study of corneal sensitivity in birds of prey. Vet Ophthalmol 17:190–194

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lange RR, Lima L, Montiani-Ferreira F (2012) Measurement of tear production in black tufted marmosets (Callithrix penicillata) using three different methods: modified Schirmer’s I, phenol red thread and standardized endodontic absorbent paper points. Vet Ophthalmol 15:376–382

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lange RR, Lima L, Przydzimirski AC et al (2014) Reference values for the production of the aqueous fraction of the tear film measured by the standardized endodontic absorbent paper point test in different exotic and laboratory animal species. Vet Ophthalmol 17:41–45

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langohr IM, Garner MM, Kiupel M (2012) Somatotroph pituitary tumors in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). Vet Pathol 49:503–507

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leber AC, Bürge T (1999) A dermoid of the eye in a blue-fronted Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva). Vet Ophthalmol 2:133–135

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lehmkuhl RC, Almeida MF, Mamprim MJ et al (2010) B-mode ultrasonography biometry of the Amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva) eye. Vet Ophthalmol 13:26–28

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lima FC, Vieira LG, Santos ALQ et al (2009) Anatomy of the scleral ossicles in Brazilian birds. Braz J Morphol Sci 26:165–169

    Google Scholar 

  • Lipman NS, Yan LL, Murphy JC (1994) Probable transmission of chlamydia psittaci form a macaw to a cat. J Am Vet Med Assoc 204:1479–1480

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lisney TJ, Rubene D, Rózsa J et al (2011) Behavioural assessment of flicker fusion frequency in chicken Gallus gallus domesticus. Vis Res 51:1324–1332

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Machado M, Schmidt EMS, Montiani-Ferreira F (2006) Interspecies variation in orbital bone structure of psittaciform birds (with emphasis on Psittacidae). Vet Ophthalmol 9:191–194

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magat M, Brown C (2009) Laterality enhances cognition in Australian parrots. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 276:4155–4162

    Google Scholar 

  • Malik R, Krockenberger MB, Cross G et al (2003) Avian cryptococcosis. Med Mycol 41:1115–1124

    Google Scholar 

  • Mans C, Sanchez-Migallon Guzman D, Lahner LL et al (2012) Sedation and physiologic response to manual restraint after intranasal administration of midazolam in Hispaniolan Amazon parrots (Amazona ventralis). J Avian Med Surg 26:130–139

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald SE, Lowenstine LJ, Ardans AA (1981) Avian pox in blue-fronted Amazon parrots. J Am Vet Med Assoc 179:1218–1222

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Micali A, Pisani A, Ventrici C et al (2012) Morphological and morphometric study of the Pecten oculi in the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus). Anat Rec 295:540–550

    Google Scholar 

  • Milbradt EL, Silva TM, Hataka A et al (2017) Massive attack of honeybee on macaws (Ara ararauna and Ara chloropterus) in Brazil: a case report. Toxicon 136:1–5

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller DS, Taton-Allen GF, Campbell TW (2004) Knemidokoptes in a Swainson’s hawk, Buteo swainsoni. J Zoo Wildl Med 35:400–402

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mitkus M, Chaib S, Lind O et al (2014) Retinal ganglion clel topography and spatial resolution of two parrot species: budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus) and Bourke’s parrot (Neopsephotus bourkii). J Comp Physiol A 200:371–384

    Google Scholar 

  • Monção-Silva RM, Ofri R, Raposo AC et al (2016a) Ophthalmic diagnostic tests in parrots (Amazona amazonica) and (Amazona aestiva). J Exot Pet Med 25:186–193

    Google Scholar 

  • Monção-Silva RM, Ofri R, Raposo ACS et al (2016b) Ophthalmic parameters of blue-and-yellow macaws (Ara ararauna) and lear’s macaws (Anodorhynchus leari). Avian Biol Res 9:240–249

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore BA, Pita D, Tyrrell LP et al (2015) Vision in emberizid foragers: maximizing both binocular vision and fronto-lateral visual acuity. J Exp Biol 218:1347–1358

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore BA, Teixeira LBC, Sponsel WE et al (2017) The consequences of avian ocular trauma: histopathological evidence and implications of acute and chronic disease. Vet Ophthalmol 20:496–504

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore BA, Yoo I, Tyrrell LP et al (2016) FOVEA: a new program to standardize the measurement of foveal pit morphology. PeerJ 4:e1785

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Morrisey JK (1997) Diseases of the upper respiratory tract of companion birds. Semin Avian Exot Pet Med 6:195–200

    Google Scholar 

  • Murphy CJ, Brooks DE, Kern TJ et al (1983) Enucleation in birds of prey. J Am Vet Med Assoc 183:1234–1237

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murray M, Pizzirani S, Tseng F (2013) A technique for evisceration as an alternative to enucleation in birds of prey: 19 cases. J Avian Med Surg 27:120–127

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nanda I, Karl E, Griffin DK et al (2007) Chromosome repatterning in three representative parrots (Psittaciformes) inferred from comparative chromosome painting. Cytogenet Genome Res 117:43–53

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nau MR, Carpenter JW, Lin D et al (2017) Mucoepidermoid carcinoma in the skull of an orange-winged Amazon parrot (Amazona amazonica). J Avian Med Surg 31:225–231

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann U, Kummerfeld N (1983) Implantation of an ocular prosthesis in a gray parrot. Tierarztl Prax 11:195–199

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nogueira DC, Ueda SMY, Murça MAS et al (2007) Comparação entre dois meios de coleta e transporte para estudo da microbiota conjuntival de indivíduos normais. Arq Bras Oftalmol 70:929–934

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira MMS, Araújo NLLC, Raposo ACS et al (2017) Reference values for selected ophthalmic diagnostic tests in the Caatinga parakeet (Eupsittula Cactorum) and yellow-Chevroned parakeet (Brotogeris Chiriri). Avian Biol Res 10:211–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Oriá AP, Raposo AC, Cardoso-Brito V et al (2019) Tear meniscometry test in wild animals. Cienc Rural 49:11. e20181002

    Google Scholar 

  • Paul-Murphy J, Lowenstine L, Turrel JM et al (1985) Malignant lymphoreticular neoplasm in an African gray parrot. J Am Vet Med Assoc 187:1216–1217

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piccione G, Giannetto C, Fazio F et al (2008) Daily rhythm of tear production in normal horse. Vet Ophthalmol 11:57–60

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinard CL, Fitzgerald G, Desmarchelier M (2006) Surgical repair of acquired ankyloblepharon in a cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus). J Avian Med Surg 20:253–257

    Google Scholar 

  • Pipo RA, Broadstone RV, Murphy CJ (1996) Lethal oculocardiac reflex in a cockatiel. Vet Comp Ophthalmol 6:27–39

    Google Scholar 

  • Prado MR, Rocha MFG, Brito EHS et al (2005) Survey of bacterial microorganisms in the conjuntival sac of clinically normal dogs and dogs with ulcerative keratitis in Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil. Vet Ophthalmol 8:33–37

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pye GW, Bennett RA, Newell SM et al (2000) Magnetic resonance imaging in Psittacine birds with chronic sinusitis. J Avian Med Surg 14:243–256

    Google Scholar 

  • Quist EM, Belcher C, Levine G et al (2011) Disseminated histoplasmosis with concurrent oral candidiasis in an Eclectus parrot (Eclectus roratus). Avian Pathol 40:207–211

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raidal SR (1997) Bilateral necrotizing pectenitis causing blindness in a rainbow lorikeet (Trichoglossus haematodus). Avian Pathol 26:871–876

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rainwater KL, Sykes JM, Sapienza JS (2015) Retrospective investigation of cataract management in avian species in a zoologic collection. J Zoo Wildl Med 46:858–869

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramos-Vara JA, Smith EJ, Watson GL (1997) Lymphosarcoma with plasmacytoid differentiation in a scarlet macaw (Ara macao). Avian Dis 41:499–504

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raso TF, Seixas GHF, Guedes NMR et al (2006) Chlamydophila psittaci in free-living blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva) and Hyacinth macaws (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) in the Pantanal of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. Vet Microbiol 117:235–241

    Google Scholar 

  • Sadegh AB (2013) Comparison of intranasal administration of xylazine, diazepam, and midazolam in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus): clinical evaluation. J Zoo Wildl Med 44:241–244

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schäffer DPH, Araújo NLLC, Raposo ACS et al (2017) Sedative effects of intranasal midazolam administration in wild caught blue-fronted Amazon (Amazona aestiva) and orange-winged Amazon (Amazona amazonica) parrots. J Avian Med Surg 31:213–218

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schäffer DPH, Raposo ACS, Libório FA et al (2016) Intranasal administration of midazolam in blue-and-yellow macaws (Ara araruana): evaluation of sedative effects. Vet Anaesth Analg 43:459–460

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schlumberger HG (1954) Neoplasia in the parakeet: I. spontaneous chromophobe pituitary tumors. Cancer Res 14:237–245

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt RE, Becker LL, Mcelroy JM (1986) Malignant intraocular medulloepithelioma in two cockatiels. J Am Vet Med Assoc 189:1105–1106

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt RE, Reavill DR, Phalen DN (2003a) Endocrine system. In: Schmidt RE, Reavill DR, Phalen DN (eds) Pathology of pet and aviary birds. Blackwell Publishing Company, Ames, IA, pp 121–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt RE, Reavill DR, Phalen DN (2003b) Special sense organs. In: Schmidt RE, Reavill DR, Phalen DN (eds) Pathology of pet and aviary birds. Blackwell Publishing Company, Ames, IA, pp 197–211

    Google Scholar 

  • Schulz TA, Stewart JS, Fowler ME (1989) Knemidokoptes mutans (Acari: Knemidocoptidae) in a great-horned owl (Bubo virginianus). J Wildl Dis 25:430–432

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwabe CW (1950) Studieson Oxyspiruramansoni, the tropical eye worm of poultry. III. Preliminary observations on eyeworm pathogenicity. Am J Vet Res 11:286–290

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shimakura S, Sawa H, Yamashita T et al (1981) An outbreak of ocular disease caused by staphylococcal infection in amazon parrot (Amazona aestiva) imported into Japan. Jpn J Vet Sci 43:273–275

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sibley CG, Ahlquist JE (1990) Phylogeny and classification of birds: a study in molecular evolution. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT

    Google Scholar 

  • Sick H, Pacheco JF (1997) Ordem Psittaciformes. In: Sick H (ed) Ornitologia Brasileira, 2nd edn. Nova Fronteira, Rio de Janeiro, pp 351–382

    Google Scholar 

  • Silva-Castillo R, Flores-Ceballos S, Ducoing-Watt AM et al (2019) Use of endodontic paper points and Schirmer strips for measurement of tear flow in red-lored parrots (Amazona autumnalis). Vet Mex 6:1–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Simova-Curd S, Richter M, Hauser B et al (2009) Surgical removal of a Retrobulbar adenoma in an African Grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus). J Avian Med Surg 23:24–28

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith BJ, Smith SA, Spaulding KA et al (1990) The normal xeroradiographic and radiographic anatomy of the cockatiel (Nymphzcus Hollandzs). Vet Radiol 31:226–234

    Google Scholar 

  • Souza JOT, Angêlo FF, Homem LAS (2010) Microbiota bacteriana conjuntival de felinos domésticos (Felis S. catus, LINNAEUS, 1758) Sadios da cidade de Juiz de Fora—MG. Revista Científica Eletrônica de Medicina Veterinária, p 15

    Google Scholar 

  • Souza MJ, Johnstone-McLean NS, Ward D et al (2009) Conjuncival xanthoma in a blue and gold macaw (Ara ararauna). Vet Ophthalmol 12:53–55

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stalis IH, Rideout BA, Allen JL, et al (1995) Possible albendazole toxicity in birds. Proc Annu Conf Zoo Vet, pp 216–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanford M (2005) Nutrition and nutritional disease. In: Harcourt-Brown N, Chitty J (eds) BSAVA manual of Psittacine birds. BSAVA, Cheltenham, pp 136–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Stanz KM, Miller PE, Cooley AJ Jr et al (1995) Mycobacterial keratitis in a parrot. J Am Vet Med Assoc 206:1177–1180

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Startup CM (1970) The diseases of cage and aviary birds (excluding the specific diseases of the budgerigar). In: Rogers A, Norris KA (eds) Encyclopedia of aviculture, vol I. Blandford Press, London, pp 46–58

    Google Scholar 

  • Steinmetz A, Pees M, Schmidt V et al (2008) Blindness as a sign of proventricular dilatation disease in a gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus erithacus). J Small Anim Pract 49:660–662

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stern H, Gratzek A, Reavill D (2010) Successful treatment of keratomycosis caused by Candida in a peach-faced lovebird (Agapornis roseicollis). Association of Avian Veterinarians Conference, Proceedings

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiles J, Greenacre C (2001) Infraorbital cyst in a white cockatoo (Cacatua alba). J Avian Med Surg 15:40–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Storey ES, Carboni DA, Kearney MT et al (2009) Use of phenol red thread tests to evaluate tear production in clinically normal Amazon parrots and comparison with Schirmer tear test findings. J Am Vet Med Assoc 235:1181–1187

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stuhr CM, Murphy CJ, Schoster J et al (1999) Surgical repair of third eyelid lacerations in three birds. J Avian Med Surg 13(3):201–206

    Google Scholar 

  • Styles DK, Tomaszewski EK, Jaeger LA et al (2004) Psittacid herpesviruses associated with mucosal papillomas in neotropical parrots. Virol 325:24–35

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Surman PG, Schultz DJ, Tham VL (1974) Keratoconjunctivitis and chlamydiosis in cage birds. Aust Vet J 50:356–362

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swicegood C (1999) Sick house syndrome is your home safe for parrots? AFA Watchbird 26:23–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Swinger RL, Langan JN, Hamor R (2009) Ocular bacterial flora, tear production and intraocular pressure in a captive flock of Humboldt penguin (Spheniscus humboldti). J Zoo Wildl Med 40:430–436

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsai SS, Park JH, Hirai K et al (1993) Eye lesions in pet birds. Avian Pathol 22:95–112

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tudor DC, Yard C (1978) Retinal atrophy in a parakeet. Vet Med Small Anim Clin 73:1456

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tully TN Jr, Carter JD (1993) Bilateral supraorbital abscesses associated with sinusitis in an orange-winged Amazon parrot (Amazona amazonica). J Assoc Avian Vet 7:157–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner RC, Graham JE, Hahn S et al (2019) Infraorbital keratin cyst in an Umbrella cockatoo (Cacatua alba). J Avian Med Surg 33:150–154

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van den Brand JM, Manvell R, Paul G et al (2007) Reovirus infections associated with high mortality in Psittaciformes in the Netherlands. Avian Pathol 36:293–299

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veladiano IA, Banzato T, Bellini L et al (2016) Computed tomographic anatomy of the heads of blue-and-gold macaws (Ara ararauna), African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus), and monk parakeets (Myiopsitta monachus). Am J Vet Res 77:1346–1356

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verstappen FALM, Dorrestein GM (2005) Aspergillosis in Amazon parrots after corticosteroid therapy for smoke-inhalation injury. J Avian Med Surg 19:138–141

    Google Scholar 

  • Walls GL (1942) The vertebrate eye and its adaptive radiation. Cranbrook Institute of Science, Michigan

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang L, Pan Q, Zhang L et al (2008) Investigation of bacterial microorganisms in the conjuntival sac of clinically normal dogs and dogs with ulcerative keratitis in Beijing, China. Vet Ophthalmol 11:145–149

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Washko RM, Hoefer H, Kiehn TE et al (1998) Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a green-winged macaw (Ara chloroptera): report with public health implications. J Clin Microbiol 36:1101–1102

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Watson VE, Murdock JH, Cazzini P et al (2013) Retrobulbar adenocarcinoma in an Amazon parrot (Amazona autumnalis). J Vet Diagn Investig 25:273–276

    Google Scholar 

  • Waugh L, Pucket J, Cole GA et al (2017) Management of a nonhealing, superficial corneal ulcer in a hyacinth macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus). J Avian Med Surg 31:239–243

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westerhof I (1992) Ocular filariasis in a parakeet, a tropical surprise. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd 117:S1–S38

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams DL (2012) The avian eye. In: Williams DL (ed) Ophthalmology of exotic pets. Wiley-Blackwell, Chichester, pp 119–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams DR, Brainard DH, McMahon MJ et al (1994) Double-pass and interferometric measures of the optical quality of the eye. J Opt Soc Am 11:3123–3135

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Williams RAJ, Duch CE, Perez-Tris J et al (2014) Polymerase chain reaction detection of avipox and avian papillomavirus in naturally infected wild birds: comparisons of blood, swab, and tissue samples. Avian Pathol 43:130–134

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willis AM, Wilkie DA (1999) Avian ophthalmology, part 2: review of ophthalmic diseases. J Avian Med Surg 13:245–251

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis EO, Oniki Y (2003) Aves do estado de São Paulo. Divisa, Rio Claro

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis M, Bounous DI, Hirsh S et al (1997) Conjunctival brush cytology: evaluation of a new cytological collection technique in dogs and cats with a comparison to conjunctival scraping. Vet Comp Ophthalmol 7:74–81

    Google Scholar 

  • Wissink-Argilaga N, Pellett S (2015) Psittacine nutrition and common deficiency diseases. Companion Anim 20:526–531

    Google Scholar 

  • Yağmur M, Ersöz C, Ersöz TR et al (1997) Brush technique in ocular surface cytology. Diagn Cytopathol 17:88–91

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeiss CJ, Dubielzig RR (2006) Lentoid bodies in the avian retina. J Comp Pathol 135:243–248

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zenoble RD, Griffith RW, Clubb SL (1983) Survey of bacteriologic ora of conjunctiva and cornea in healthy psittacine birds. Am J Vet Res 44:1966–1967

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

    Bret A. Moore

  2. School of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechny, Federal University of Bahia, UFBA, Salvador, Brazil

    Arianne Pontes Oriá

  3. School of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná, UFPR, Curitiba, Brazil

    Fabiano Montiani-Ferreira

Authors
  1. Bret A. Moore
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Arianne Pontes Oriá
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Fabiano Montiani-Ferreira
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Bret A. Moore .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Veterinary Medicine Department, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil

    Fabiano Montiani-Ferreira

  2. College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

    Bret A. Moore

  3. College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA

    Gil Ben-Shlomo

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Moore, B.A., Oriá, A.P., Montiani-Ferreira, F. (2022). Ophthalmology of Psittaciformes: Parrots and Relatives. In: Montiani-Ferreira, F., Moore, B.A., Ben-Shlomo, G. (eds) Wild and Exotic Animal Ophthalmology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-71302-7_17

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation