Abstract
Israel Ba‘al Shem Tov, Hasidism and the Judaic Counter-Enlightenment. Jewish Antecedents: Sabbatian Judaism. The Medieval Torah: Paquda and piety, Maimonides’s Enlightenment, De Leon’s Zohar and Kabbalism. Hasidim between Mithnagdim and Maskilim.
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- 1.
Międzybóż is the Polish name of an old town not far from the modern city of Khmelnitsky, is now (2009) in the Khmelnytskyi province in the west of the newly independent and currently embattled Republic of Ukraine. Because this was the town name that was preferred by the Polish-Lithuanian elite who used the Latin alphabet and ruled Międzybóż in the mid-eighteenth century, I use it here, and with accents attached. The Yiddish name, מעזשביזש is transliterated into the Latin alphabet as Mezhbizh. Międzybóż, now officially transliterated (from the Ukrainian) as Medzhybizh, comes from “mezhbuzhye” which we are told means “between the Buzhenka River (and the Bug River),” between the two rivers rather like “Mesopotamia.” Orthography remains challenging in eastern Europe and transliteration more so. Alternate spellings include those of all of Międzybóż’s various ruling states: Russian: Меджибож, transliterated into English as Medzhibozh; Polish: Międzybóż or Międzybórz; German: Medschybisch; and most recently Ukrainian: Меджибіж, transliterated into English as Medzhybizh (which is the one used by Google Maps). Never consistently spelled—other English transliterations include Medzibezh, Mezhybozhe, Mezshbozsh and Miedjyborz—Międzybóż is easier to pin down on a map than it is on Google, and it can still be found at 49°27′N, 27°25′E. The latest census reports a population of 4614.
- 2.
Tłuste , now usually called Tovtse, was in Habsburg Galicia and called Tłuste after 1548 by administrators from Poland-Lithuania. It is now (2014) in Ukraine, west of Międzybóż. It’s still small and no census I can find reports its population, but its synagogue has been gone since World War 2. (Another small town named Tłuste is in central Poland.)
- 3.
Moshe Rosman, in Gershon D. Hundert, ed., Essential Papers on Hasidism : Origins to Present. NY: New York U.P., c1991, p217. Moshe Rosman, Founder of Hasidism: A Quest for the Historical Ba‘al Shem Tov , Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1996, Chapter 10, pp 159–170.
- 4.
Introducing the first comprehensive history of Hasidism in English, David Biale and his team of seven authors clear the historiography by asserting a premise not too different from that of this book: “We are accustomed to think of the Enlightenment and its critique of religion as representing modernity, while seeing movements of religious revival as reactionary, throwbacks to an earlier age.
“Yet the story of modernity is more complex. As we now know, the trajectory of history did not lead in a straight line from religion to secularism, ‘darkness’ to ‘light’: religion is as much a part of the modern world as it was of the medieval. As much as religion typically claims to stand for tradition, even the most seemingly ‘orthodox’ or ‘fundamentalist’ forms of religion in the modern world are themselves products of their age. Just as secularism was incubated in the womb of religion, so religion since the eighteenth century is a product of its interaction with secularism.” (David Biale, David Assaf, Benjamin Brown, Uriel Gellman, Samuel Heilman, Moshe Rosman, Gadi Sagiv, Marcin Wodziński, and Arthur Green, Hasidism : A New History, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 2017, Kindle Edition, p1).
- 5.
Martin Buber, “Rabbi Nachman’s Journey to Palestine,” in Buber, The Tales of Rabbi Nachman (1906), tr. Maurice Friedman (1956), NY: Avon Discus ed., 1970, p180.
- 6.
The key terms for Hasidic mysticism are, in Hebrew, devekut (“ecstatic union”), ha’alat nitzotzot (“raising of sparks”), avodah be-gashmiyut (“worship through the material”) and, of course, Hasid (“pious one”) so that Hasidism, simply means the practice of “piety”. Gershom Scholem added another earlier Kabbalistic notion, bittul ha-yesh (“annihilation of reality”). (Biale, et al., Hasidism: A New History, PUP Kindle Edition, p. 1, 5). “For some Hasidic teachers, devekut meant the union of the worshipper with God, while for others, it meant less self-effacing communion.” Biale, et al., Hasidism, p. 6.
- 7.
2 Samuel 6:14–16
- 8.
Gershom Scholem, a man who knew the documents better than any before, or perhaps since, devoted three paragraphs of his large assessment, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (1938, NY: Schocken Books, 1995), to the Ḥasidim’s overwhelming masculinity, (NY, 1995, pp. 37–38), with a single footnote (#38, page 355) mentioning the only known female ẓaddiḳ , Hannah Rachel, the nineteenth-century “Maid of Ludomir.” A rather recent book by Ada Rapoport-Albert, Women and the Messianic Heresy of Sabbatai Zevi , 1666–1816 (tr. Deborah Greniman, Oxford/Portland, OR: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 2011) reminds us that the Sabbatian movement was less excluding of women than its Hasidic successor, something Gershom Scholem missed in his other masterpiece, Sabbatai Sevi: The Mystical Messiah (Princeton, NJ: Princeton U.P., 1973). Muslim Sufism has many more female adepts, but over many more centuries. For visionary women, Christianity would seem to have the best record of opportunity among the Abrahamics (but all three Abrahamics fall short of several other religions on this score).
- 9.
Rosman, Op. cit., in Hundert, ed., Essential Papers, p215–216.
- 10.
On the difficulties presented by Hasidic historiography in general, one starts with Gershom Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism; but at present the most judicious work in English on the founding Ḥasid is Moshe Rosman’s Founder of Hasidism (Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1996). Other English accounts are Immanuel Etkes, The Besht: Magician, Mystic , and Leader (tr. Saadya Sternberg, Waltham, Mass., and Hanover, N.H., 2005), and Moshe Idel, Hasidism: Between Ecstasy and Magic (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press? 1995). The first comprehensive history of Hasidism in English—the third in any language since Shmuel Abba Horodezky’s in 1922 and Simon Dubnow’s 90-year old classic in Hebrew, (Toldot ha-ḥasidut , 3v, Tel Aviv, 1930–1932, also published in German), is Hasidism: A New History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 2017) by the team of David Biale, David Assaf, Benjamin Brown, Uriel Gellman, Samuel Heilman, Moshe Rosman, Gadi Sagiv, Marcin Wodziński, and Arthur Green.
- 11.
Zalman Aryeh Hilsenrad (compiled and translated), The Baal Shem Tov: A Brief Biography of Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov The Founder of Chasidus (Brooklyn, Kehot Publication Society, 5759/1999), p.43. “revealed … from on High” are, of course, the words of Hilsenrad, a Hasidic writer.
- 12.
Hilsenrad, The Baal Shem Tov, p43.
- 13.
Yivo Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, Article “Magic,” @ http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Magic (Accessed 9 August, 2014).
- 14.
“Yoel Ba‘al Shem I,” Wikipedia, 10 Aug 14. Wikipedia lists its source as the memoir of Rabbi Yosef Yitzchak Schneerson (1880–1950) @ http://www.hebrewbooks.org/pagefeed/hebrewbooks_org_15614_96.pdf, but the name Schneerson suggests a Lubavitcher point of view.
- 15.
Simon Dubnow, Die Weltgeschichte des juedischen Volkes, [World History of the Jewish People] (10v, Germany, 1925–29; tr., Moshe Spiegel as History of the Jews, 5 vols., South Brunswick, N.J., 1967–1973), in Hundert, ed., Essential Papers, p31. Among the books are Amtaḥat Binyamin (1716), Toldot adam (1720), Mif‘alot Elohim [Works of God] (1725); cf., Yivo Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, Article “Magic,” @ http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Magic (Accessed 9 August, 2012).
- 16.
Dubnow, World History of the Jewish People, in Hundert, ed., Essential Papers, pp. 32–33. The source published closest to the birth of Hasidism is Shivhei ha-BESHT [Shivchei Habesht, or Praise of the Ba‘al Shem Tov], Kapust (Lithuania )/Berdyczew (Ukraine), 1815.
- 17.
Shivei ha-BESHT [Stories of the Ba‘al Shem], p6b, in Dubnow, in Hundert, ed., Essential Papers, p33n.19.
- 18.
Joseph Jacobs & Isaac Broydé. “Zohar”. Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk & Wagnalls Company. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=Z#406.
- 19.
“Woe unto those who see in the Law nothing but simple narratives and ordinary words …. Every word of the Law contains an elevated sense and a sublime mystery …. The narratives of the Law are but the raiment in which the (higher) Law is clothed. Woe unto him who mistakes the garment for the Law itself. It was to avert such a calamity that David prayed, ‘Open my eyes that I might behold wonderous things out of Thy Law’” (Zohar, Introduction, ed. & tr., Simon, Sperling, Levertoff, Soncino Press, v1, p?).
- 20.
Ibn Paquda’s book may derive in part from earlier Ṣufi Muslim manuals, also in Arabic, one by Abū Talib al-Makki (d. 996), Qut al-qulub (Food of Hearts) and another, the more esoteric ‘Ilm al-qulub (Knowledge of the Hearts, as suggested by John Baldock in The Essence of Sufism, Arcturus, 2004 Kindle ed. p56). Indeed, Duties of the Heart has just received a major treatment in English in Diana Lobel’s A Sufi-Jewish Dialogue: Philosophy and Mysticism in Bahya ibn Paquda’s Duties of the Heart, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2020); and Lobel could rely on what is still the only English translation from the eleventh-century Arabic: Bahya Ben Joseph Ibn Pakuda, The Book of Direction to the Duties of the Heart (al-hidâya ilâ farâ’id al-qulûb, ca. 1080) introduction, translation and notes by Menahem Mansoor with Sara Arenson and Shoshanna Dannhauser. (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, Littmann Library of Jewish Civilization, 1973).
- 21.
Gershom Scholem, Kabbalah, p36. The transliterated Hebrew is Chovot ha-Levavot, and the author’s name may also be transliterated as Pakuda or Pachuda.
- 22.
Ibid.
- 23.
Judah ben Joseph ibn Tibbon’s Hebrew translation of Paquda’s Ḥovot ha-levavot, (MS 1161) is translated into English as: Bachya Ben Joseph Ibn Pakuda. Duties of the Heart. Translated by Yaakov Feldman (Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, 1996).
- 24.
Encyclopedia Judaica, article, “Bahir,” Keter Publishing. Up to date on the bibliographic issues is AICE’s Jewish Virtual Library @ https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/sefer-ha-bahir & https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/sefer-raza-rabba. It is notable that the “Hermetic” books acquired the same sort of uncritical veneration by being mistakenly attributed to pre-Mosaic Egyptians by Renaissance Christians.
- 25.
Girona was a town north of Barcelona where it seems that a preponderance of Jews were involved in mystical Kabbala in the twelfth century.
- 26.
Mosheh ben Maimon (Maimonides), Dalālat al-ḥāʾirīn, known in English as The Guide for the Perplexed. translated from Arabic by M. Friedlander, 2nd ed. revised, 1904 (http://teachittome.com/seforim2/seforim/the_guide_for_the_perplexed.pdf). It was written originally in Arabic, like Paquda’s Duties of the Heart , and later translated into Hebrew as More nevukhim. Interestingly, its Hebrew translator was Samuel ben Judah ibn Tibbon, the son of Paquda’s translator, Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon. Mosheh ben Maimon (ca. 1135–1204), an exemplary product of the polyreligious world of the medieval Mediterranean, was known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn ibn Abdallah al-Kurtubi al-Israili in Arabic, and Moses Maimonides in Greek and Latin. The Hebrew spelling of ben Maimon’s name is רבי משה בן מיימון, and his full Arabic name is spelled موسى بن ميمون بن عبد الله القرطبي الإسرائيلي,.
- 27.
Gershom Scholem, ed., Zohar, The Book of Splendor: Basic Readings from the Kabbalah, NY: Schocken Books, 1963, p7.
- 28.
Maimonides, Guide for the Perplexed , tr. M. Friedlander, 1904, http://teachittome.com/seforim2/seforim/the_guide_for_the_perplexed.pdf, Introduction, p75.
- 29.
Karen Armstrong, The Case for God (NY: Knopf, 2009), p138. For Maimonides’s theology of what-God-is-not, or God-circumspection, Armstrong uses the helpful term “apophatic.”
- 30.
“He […] who begins with Metaphysics, will not only become confused in matters of religion, but will fall into complete infidelity. I compare such a person to an infant fed with wheaten bread, meat and wine; it will undoubtedly die, not because such food is naturally unfit for the human body, but because of the weakness of the child, who is unable to digest the food, and cannot derive benefit from it.” Maimonides, Guide for the Perplexed, http://teachittome.com/seforim2/seforim/the_guide_for_the_perplexed.pdf, Chapter 33, p123.
- 31.
The disciple’s name was given as Rabbi Shim’on bar Yohai. The original source for nearly every trustworthy fact about Kabbala’s origins is, of course, Gershom Scholem.
- 32.
His full name in transliterated Hebrew was Moshe ben Shem Tov de León. Joseph Jacobs & Isaac Broydé. “Zohar”. Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk & Wagnalls Company. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=Z#406.
- 33.
Gershom Scholem (1897–1982), Origins of the Kabbalah, tr., Arkush, ed., Werblowsky, Princeton, NJ: Princeton U.P., 1987.
- 34.
Zohar, ed. & tr., Simon, Sperling & Levertoff, 5v, Soncino Press, 1996, v.?, II 42b. Just a little of this can be found in Gershom Scholem’s English reader’s abridgement, Zohar, The Book of Splendor (NY: Schocken Books, 1963), pp77–81. (There will not be a quiz.)
- 35.
Or “Sevi,” as Gershom Scholem transliterated it in his Sabbatai Sevi: The Mystical Messiah . Other spellings and transliterations include, but may not be limited to: Shabtai, Shabbetai, Shabbatai, Sabatai, Sabethai, Sabetha, Sabbathai Sabatei; Sebi, Sevi, Tzvi, Tzevi, Zwi, and Zvi. (A Googler may have to try them all.) Sabbatai was the second son of Mordecai Zevi, a merchant from Smyrna (now Izmir in Turkey), whose name suggests descent from the Ashkenazim, the Jews of central and eastern Europe.
- 36.
Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 158–166.
- 37.
Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p160. In Zevi’s time these Jews were mostly Karaite and Romaniote, but there were new Sephardic and Italian immigrants. Scholem’s account of Sabbatai Sevi’s last visit to Constantinople in 1665, and his triumph and imprisonment there, is in Sabbatai Sevi, pp433–460.
- 38.
Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p174; Freely, p36.
- 39.
Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 197–199; Freely, p40–43.
- 40.
He was seen there by a reliable witness, Abraham Cuenque. Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 191.
- 41.
Freely, p45–47; Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 202–207.
- 42.
Freely, p47; Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 191–198.
- 43.
Nathan, Book of Creation, Barbara Armstrong. The Battle for God. (New York: Alfred Knopf, 2000), p27, Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 217–219.
- 44.
Freely, p55; Scholem, Sabbatai Sevi, p. 217–219.
- 45.
Armstrong. Battle for God. p27.
- 46.
Armstrong, p28–29, Freely, chapter 13; Scholem weighs the evidence for all the possible scenarios in Sabbatai Sevi, Chapter 6.
- 47.
Joseph Jacobs & Isaac Broydé, “Zohar”. Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk & Wagnalls Company. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=Z#406.
- 48.
“There is a small group among the Orthodox who refuse to accept the Zohar, known as Dor Daim (דרדעים). They are mainly from the Jewish community in Yemen, and claim that the Zohar cannot be true because its ideas clash with the ideas of the Rambam (Maimonides), the great medieval rabbi and rationalist, Rabbi Saadiah Gaon, and other early representatives of the Jewish faith. The Zohar is rejected by almost all Spanish and Portuguese Jews. Some among them believe the Zohar is collection of ideas based on Midrasim and misinterpretation of midrashic concepts.” (Joseph Jacobs & Isaac Broydé. “Zohar,” Jewish Encyclopedia. Funk & Wagnalls Company. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=Z#406.)
- 49.
The cleric, Jean Morin, had noticed, for example, a suspect reference in the Zohar to the crusades against the Muslims, suspect because neither crusades nor Muslims existed in the second century when the Zohar’s purported author was supposed to have lived. Cf., Jean Morin, Exercitationes Biblicæ, Paris, 1669, pp. 359 et seq. “These and other objections of Emden’s, which were largely borrowed from […] Morin […] were refuted by Moses ben Menahem Kunitz, who, in a work entitled “Ben Yoḥai” (Budapest, 1815).
- 50.
Descartes’s contemporary Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), unlike Sabbatai Zevi (1626–1676), has lately returned to prominence in the canon of Western philosophers, thanks in part to Yirmiyahu Yovel’s two volumes, Spinoza and Other Heretics, Volume 1: The Marrano of Reason, and Volume 2: The Adventures of Immanence (Princeton: Princeton University Press; Reprint edition, 1992), together with Jonathan Israel’s two larger volumes which lay the Enlightenment’s entire left wing on Spinoza’s doorstep: Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750 (NY: Oxford University Press pb, 2002) and Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670–1752 (NY: Oxford U.P., 2009). The best popular books about Spinoza are by Matthew Stewart, The Courtier and the Heretic: Leibniz , Spinoza, and the Fate of God in the Modern World (NY: Norton, 2006) and Rebecca Goldstein, Betraying Spinoza: The Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity (Jewish Encounters, Schocken pb, 2009). Spinoza’s part in the German Counter-Enlightenment is fundamental, beginning with a famous debate on his religious position that began in 1785 among Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786), Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819), and Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744–1803).
- 51.
As Jacobs and Broydé continue their Jewish Encyclopedia article: “However, the Zohar is still held in great reverence by many Orthodox Jews, especially the Ḥasidim, who, under its influence, assign the first place in religion not to dogma and ritual, but to the sentiment and the emotion of faith.” Joseph Jacobs & Isaac Broydé, “Zohar” http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=142&letter=Z#406.
- 52.
In the even more distant past the region had been subject to the famously Jewish, Turkic-speaking, Khazar Khans from the seventh to the tenth centuries, to pagan Pechenegs, Alans and Orthodox Christian Kievan Rus’ in the tenth to the twelfth centuries, and to Mongol Khans and Galician princes in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The city of Odessa, on the Black Sea coast, was its window on Constantinople, Christian until 1453, and the Muslim empires to the south.
- 53.
Timothy Snyder, Bloodlands : Europe Between Hitler and Stalin, NY: Basic Books, 2010. Indeed, very little national loyalty of any kind has been able to survive in this area through the twentieth century. Ukraine, the state that was born in 1917 and now contains the birthplace of Hasidism, faced dismemberment by pro-Russian rebels immediately on its proclamation, and again almost exactly a century later, in 2014.
- 54.
בסופו אגרת הבעש”ט לגיסו ה”ר גרשון קיטווער אודות עלית הנשמה שלו Israel Ben Eliezer to Rabbi Gershon Kitover, in Rabbi Jacob Joseph (Hacohen), Ben Porath Yosseph (Ben Poras Yosef), Koretz, Ukraine, 1781, p207–08 @ http://hebrewbooks.org/pdfpager.aspx?req=24560&st=&pgnum=207
As translated into English by a Ḥasid: “On Rosh Hashanah of the year 5507 I made an ‘ascent of soul’… I ascended level after level until I reached the chamber of the Moshiach… And I asked Moshiach: “When will the Master come?” And the Moshiach replied: “When your teachings will be disseminated and revealed in the world, and your wellsprings will spread outside…” (in Jacob Joseph, Ben Poras Yosef), Koretz, 1781, trans. @ http://www.chabad.org/kabbalah/article_cdo/aid/380401/jewish/The-Chamber-of-Mashiach.htm).
Another translation: “When will the Master come down to earth to redeem us?”
“When your fountains will spread to the outside.” (in Hilsenrad, p45).
And in French: “lorsque tes sources se répandront à l’extérieur’.” (Lexique du hassidisme @ www.modia.org/lexhassid/lexhassid.html).
- 55.
The Moravian headquarters of Herrnhut was about 1000 kilometers west of Międzybóż, just over the current Polish border with Germany.
- 56.
Published posthumously in Korets, Ukraine, in 1781.
- 57.
On the difficulties presented by Hasidic historiography in general, one starts with Scholem, but for the Baal Shem himself one starts with Moshe Rosman’s Founder of Hasidism . (Berkeley: U. of California Press, 1996).
- 58.
His Kabbalistic texts, posthumously published, include Tikune Zohar, Sefer yetsirah, and Sifra’ di-tseni‘uta. (Immanuel Etkes, “Eliyahu ben Shelomoh Zalman,” trans., David Strauss, YIVO Encyclopedia of the Jews in Eastern Europe, online @ http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Eliyahu_ben_Shelomoh_Zalman, accessed 14 Aug 12).
- 59.
Etkes, “Eliyahu ben Shelomoh Zalman,” YIVO Encyclopedia of the Jews in Eastern Europe, online @ http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Eliyahu_ben_Shelomoh_Zalman, accessed 14 Aug 12).
- 60.
Phinehas ben Judah of Polotsk, Rosh Ha-Giveah [ethical will], Vilna, 1820, p2b, in Allan Nadler, The Faith of the Mithnagdim: Rabbinic Responses to Hasidic Rapture , Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins U.P., 1997, p71.
- 61.
In M. Wilensky, Ḥasidim u-Mithnagdim: le-Toledoth ha-Pulmus Beynehem, (Jerusalem: Mossad Bialik, 1970), vol. 1, p248, quoted in Nadler, The Faith of the Mithnagdim, p77.
- 62.
“The death of the preachers Yisra’el Leibel of Slutsk (ca. 1800) and David of Makeve (Maków; d. 1814), who had considered themselves to be the Gaon’s personal emissaries in their vigorous anti-Hasidic activities, also added to the decline of the campaign.” (David Assaf, “Hasidism: Historical Overview,” YIVO Encyclopedia of the Jews in Eastern Europe, online @ http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Hasidism/Historical_Overview, accessed 11–13 Aug 12).
- 63.
Likute amarim (Compilation of Teachings, 1797) has been called Sefer Shel Beinonim (Book of the Average or Intermediate Man), after the title of chapter 12, and the title of one of the 5 parts that Tanya was divided into in the 1814 edition.
- 64.
“Strashelye (Hasidic dynasty),” Wikipedia, accessed 13 Aug 12.
- 65.
Nissan Mindel, The Philosophy of Chabad, 2. Introduction, Brooklyn: Kehot Publication Society, 1985.
- 66.
Shneur Zalman of Liadi, Tanya (Likute amarim or Compilation of Teachings), Chapter 13, in “Chabad,” Wikipedia, 14 Aug 17.
- 67.
Shneur Zalman, Tanya, Chabad English translation Chapter 12 (Sefer Shel Beinonim) @ http://www.chabad.org/library/tanya/tanya_cdo/aid/1028911/jewish/Chapter-12.htm.
- 68.
Isaac Euchel, ed., Ha-Meassef, vol 1, No. 1 (1 October, 1783). The historic conflict between Ḥaskalah (השכלה, wisdom, erudition) and Ḥasidut (חסידות, piety) in eighteenth and nineteenth-century Judaism is covered in detail in Raphael Mahler, Hasidism and the Jewish Enlightenment [Ḥaskalah]: Their Confrontation in Galicia and Poland in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century, Chapel Hill: U. of North Carolina Press, 1984. (Originally published in part in Yiddish, NY: YIVO, 1942; and in Hebrew as Sifriyat Po‘alim, 1961).
- 69.
Perl, Megaleh Tmirin (Revealer of Secrets), 1819, Levinsohn, Divre tsadikim (or Dibre Ẓaddiḳim, Words of the Righteous), 1830, and Levinsohn ‘Emek refa’im (Valley of the Ghosts), published posthumously in 1867. Levinsohn wrote from his birthplace of Kremnetz, Ukraine, the same province as the Międzybóż/Mezhbizh of the Ba‘al Shem Tov and Shneur Zalman.
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Everdell, W.R. (2021). The Crucible of the Counter-Enlightenment V. In: The Evangelical Counter-Enlightenment. Boston Studies in Philosophy, Religion and Public Life, vol 9. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69762-4_7
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