Abstract
Compassion-inclined animal literature has an unsettling, estranging effect on readers. It invites a reappraisal of our interactions with nature and encourages engagement with difficult ethical questions. This chapter introduces the idea of animal literature as a literature of protest that educates readers on ways human behavior causes suffering, promotes empathy, and envisions more compassionate ways of interacting with nonhuman neighbors. This chapter argues the imaginative spaces stories provide make an important contribution toward the formation of humane values. Here and throughout, Hugh Lofting’s Doctor Dolittle novels provide the impetus for the ‘welfarist’ approach to reading introduced.
My father recited poems out loud at home. I have vivid memories of him reading “The Bells Of Heaven” (Ralph Hodgson), “Snake” (D. H. Lawrence), and a poem I have never been able to relocate about a fox caught in a trap with young in the den. The innocence of anymals and the cruel power of humanity was manifest in sorrow, anger, even bitterness in my father’s soft voice. Already then, his sentiments echoed my own experiences with humanity and anymals in rural America. I also recall my mother singing the folksong, “The Fox Went out on a Chilly Night,” and how my father would say, “The fox has to eat, too.” I realize now that the poems themselves might never have reached me if my parents had not read and sung to us when we were young. Through their voices—through this shared experience of literature—I gained more than what was written on those dog-eared pages.
—Lisa Kemmerer, Montana State University Billings, philosopher-activist
Personal correspondence. On her use of the term anymal, see Prof. Kemmerer’s “Verbal Activism: ‘Anymals’,” Society and Animals 14.1 (May 2006): 9–14. It is a contraction of any and animal, which indicates all individuals of any species other than the speaker/author. She prefers it to the regular spelling because it avoids the suggestion humans are not themselves animals, as well as the dualism and alienation implied by the prefixed term nonhumans or the qualifier other animals.
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Notes
- 1.
Steve Jenkins and Derek Walter, with Caprice Crane, Esther the Wonder Pig: Changing the World One Heart at a Time (New York: Grand Central, 2017); and Steve Jenkins and Derek Walter, with Caprice Crane, Happily Ever Esther: Two Men, A Wonder Pig, and Their Life-Changing Mission to Give Animals a Home (New York: Grand Central, 2018).
- 2.
Jane Goodall, with Phillip Berman, Reason for Hope: A Spiritual Journey (New York: Warner, 1999), 11.
- 3.
Jane Goodall and Marc Bekoff, The Ten Trusts: What We Must Do to Care for the Animals We Love (New York: HarperCollins, 2002), 69. In Reason for Hope, she also writes appreciatively of The Wind in the Willows and George MacDonald’s At the Back of the North Wind (1871), both of which involve, in very different ways, highly imaginative depictions of animals (11–12).
- 4.
Allyson N. May, The Fox-Hunting Controversy, 1781–2004: Class and Cruelty (New York: Routledge, 2016), 74. See too chap. 6 of May’s book, “The Flight from Modernity: Nostalgia and the Hunt.” She closes that chapter observing that fox-hunting’s survival “past the Great War and the Second World War into the twenty-first century in many ways can be explained by the very fact that it is not modern” (184). Italics original.
- 5.
Gary D. Schmidt, Hugh Lofting, Twayne’s English Authors Series 496 (New York: Twayne, 1992), 51.
- 6.
Schmidt, Hugh Lofting, 13.
- 7.
As cited in Schmidt, Hugh Lofting, 6.
- 8.
Schmidt, Hugh Lofting, 2. Schmidt here relates the anecdote as told by Lofting’s son, in Colin Lofting, “Mortifying Visit from a Dude Dad,” Life 30 (September 1966), 128–30.
- 9.
Hugh Lofting, Doctor Dolittle’s Circus, in Doctor Dolittle: The Complete Collection, vol. 2 (1924; New York: Aladdin, 2019), 173. He describes fox hunting as “childish” again on p. 170.
- 10.
Lofting, Doctor Dolittle’s Circus, 166–68.
- 11.
Lofting , Doctor Dolittle’s Circus, 168. Dolittle’s opposition to sport hunting is longstanding. The sound of the horses, dogs, and hunters’ shouts reminds him of an earlier experience that “made him an enemy of fox hunting for life––when he had met an old fox one evening lying half dead with exhaustion under a tangle of blackberries” (168).
- 12.
Lofting, Doctor Dolittle’s Circus, 168–71. Dolittle, of course, speaks animal languages.
- 13.
Lofting, Doctor Dolittle’s Circus, 176. Full account, 174–77.
- 14.
Lofting, Doctor Dolittle’s Circus, 177–84.
- 15.
Lofting, Doctor Dolittle’s Circus, 184.
- 16.
Hugh Lofting, The Voyages of Doctor Dolittle, in Doctor Dolittle: The Complete Collection, vol. 1 (1922; New York: Aladdin, 2019), 60.
- 17.
Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction (1983; Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 162.
- 18.
Eagleton, Literary Theory, 162.
- 19.
Richard Adams, The Day Gone By: An Autobiography (1990; London: Penguin, 1991), 22.
- 20.
Adams , Day Gone By, 106. If Lofting was progressive in his thinking about animal welfare, he was also mired in some of the worst prejudices of his historical moment. As often noted in the critical literature, early editions of the stories include some egregious racist remarks. Later editions of the books remove offensive passages.
- 21.
C. S. Lewis, “Impenitence,” in Poems (1964; New York: HarperOne, 2017), 5–6. Lewis first published this poem in 1953.
- 22.
Michael Ryan, “Political Criticism,” Contemporary Literary Theory, ed. G. Douglas Atkins and Laura Morrow (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1989), 203.
- 23.
Terry Eagleton, Why Marx Was Right (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2011), 153–54.
- 24.
Isa Leshko, Allowed to Grow Old: Portraits of Elderly Animals from Farm Sanctuaries (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2019), 11.
- 25.
Katherine Applegate, “Author’s Note,” in The One and Only Ivan (New York: HarperCollins, 2012), 308.
- 26.
Jane Smiley, “Foreword,” to Anna Sewell, Black Beauty (1877; New York: Penguin, 2011), ix. Many note the contributions of Sewell’s Black Beauty toward greater awareness of animal suffering. “The novel had a very powerful impact on the public,” writes Paul Waldau, “and it, along with much other literature modeled on it, increased concern greatly for not only the welfare of work animals but for dogs as well” (Animal Rights: What Everyone Needs to Know [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011], 42).
- 27.
Jonathan Sacks, The Great Partnership: Science, Religion, and the Search for Meaning (New York: Schocken, 2011), 243. Italics original.
- 28.
Here and throughout I use the New Revised Standard Version of the Bible, unless otherwise indicated.
- 29.
Sacks, Great Partnership, 243, 244.
- 30.
Sacks, Great Partnership, 244.
- 31.
Lofting, The Voyages of Doctor Dolittle, 156–57.
- 32.
Lofting , The Voyages of Doctor Dolittle, 156, 157. It surprises the narrator Tommy Stubbins to see the usually mild-mannered Dolittle “red in the face with anger” and it reminds him of the Doctor’s similar reaction when speaking about zoos keeping tigers and lions in captivity (156; cf. 57–58).
- 33.
Lofting, The Voyages of Doctor Dolittle, 159.
- 34.
Lofting, The Voyages of Doctor Dolittle, 166. Italics added. Polynesia the parrot likens Dolittle breaking the rules of bullfighting to his sailing methods (166–67; cf. 147). Though he breaks the rules of navigation, he always gets where he wants to go.
- 35.
Lofting, The Voyages of Doctor Dolittle, 159.
- 36.
Josephine Donovan, The Aesthetics of Care: On the Literary Treatment of Animals (New York: Bloomsbury, 2016), 95–96.
- 37.
Donovan, Aesthetics of Care, 99.
- 38.
Carol J. Adams, Neither Man nor Beast: Feminism and the Defense of Animals (1994; London: Bloomsbury, 2018), 34. In a similar spirit, cf. S. Louise Patteson’s Pussy Meow: The Autobiography of a Cat (Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs & Co., 1901), 88–89: “pardon me if I mention something that may seem very trivial to you, but which I consider of great importance. A cat should have a name, because it adds to her dignity, and commands respect for her. Moreover, it enhances her commercial value to be thus individualized, and lifted above the general mass of her kind.”
- 39.
Donovan, Aesthetics of Care, 99.
- 40.
Lisa Sainsbury, Ethics in British Children’s Literature: Unexamined Life, Perspectives on Children’s Literature (London: Bloomsbury, 2013), 167.
- 41.
See e.g., Ernest Hemingway, Death in the Afternoon (New York: Scribner, 1932).
- 42.
Hadas Marcus, “An Ecocritical Approach to Cruelty in the Laboratory,” Journal of Animal Ethics 6.2 (2016): 228.
- 43.
Hugh Lofting, Doctor Dolittle’s Zoo, in Doctor Dolittle: The Complete Collection, vol. 3 (1925; New York: Aladdin, 2019), 228–29, 247–48.
- 44.
E. B. White, The Trumpet of the Swan, illustrated by Edward Frascino (New York: Scholastic, 1970), 196–97.
- 45.
White , Trumpet of the Swan, 197. Italics original. There is also a storyline about hunting to extinction in Kathi Appelt and Alison McGhee’s Maybe A Fox (New York: Atheneum, 2016). See e.g., 169–70.
- 46.
Donovan, Aesthetics of Care, 117.
- 47.
Patteson , Pussy Meow, “Preface,” n.p. Within the story, the feline narrator echoes this concern for overlooked species in remarks about Billy the pig: “When Billy was led back to his pen, he grunted his thankfulness to his friends the best he knew how. As for me, I concluded to put Uncle Ellison’s plan [for kind treatment of pigs] into my story; for who knows but some of the boys who read it may be farmers someday, and will want to try it?” (45). Like Sewell’s Black Beauty and Margaret Marshall Saunders’s Beautiful Joe, the basis for Patteson’s vision of animal compassion is Christian piety. Guy and his mother, Meow’s “mistress,” enact the humane values inculcated throughout the book. They also read the Bible and pray every day after breakfast (e.g., Pussy Meow, 64). There are references to Sewell’s Black Beauty and Saunders’s Beautiful Joe in Patteson’s novel as well. Guy reads them both (28, 29).
- 48.
Patteson, Pussy Meow, “Preface,” frontmatter, unnumbered page.
- 49.
Janet M. Davis, The Gospel of Kindness: Animal Welfare and the Making of Modern America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016), 12.
- 50.
Davis, Gospel of Kindness, 12–13.
- 51.
Patteson, Pussy Meow, 87.
- 52.
Sarah K. Bolton, “Introduction” to Saunders, Pussy Meow, 15. Italics added.
- 53.
Peg Kehret, Ghost Dog Secrets (New York: Puffin, 2010), 12. Italics original. There are numerous references to the Humane Society, Animal Control, and animal control officers throughout (e.g., 73, 76, 130–135, 139, 142, 149, 165, 181, 186).
- 54.
Anna Sewell, Black Beauty (1877. New York: Penguin, 2011), 13.
- 55.
Margaret Marshall Saunders, Beautiful Joe, ed. Keridiana Chez (1893; Peterborough: Broadview, 2015), 270.
- 56.
Kehret, Ghost Dog Secrets, backmatter, pages unnumbered.
- 57.
Hughes further grounds the last-mentioned book in a real-world situation, noting, “This story is based on [De Guise’s] real-life rescue of an upriver beluga whale in Canada” (Susan Hughes, Orphaned Beluga, Wild Paws [Toronto: Scholastic, 2004], frontmatter, unnumbered page).
- 58.
Holly Webb, Harry the Homeless Puppy (London: Little Tiger, 2015), 9; The Shelter Puppy (London: Little Tiger, 2018).
- 59.
Melissa Hart, Avenging the Owl (New York: Sky Pony, 2016), 214.
- 60.
Donovan, Aesthetics of Care, 10, referring to Iris Murdoch’s Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals (1992).
- 61.
David Duchovny, Holy Cow (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2015), 56.
- 62.
Duchovny, Holy Cow, 55, 57.
- 63.
Susan McHugh, “Literary Animal Agents,” PMLA 124.2 (2009): 487.
- 64.
Andrew Linzey, “Preface: Animals, Literature, and the Virtues,” in Other Nations: Animals in Modern Literature, ed. Tom Regan and Andrew Linzey (Waco: Baylor University Press, 2010), xvi. This book is an anthology “designed to employ the power of fiction to illuminate our moral relationship with animals” (back cover). I discuss a number of stories found in this anthology.
- 65.
Tzachi Zamir, “Literary Works and Animal Ethics,” in The Oxford Handbook of Animal Ethics, ed. Tom L. Beauchamp and R. G. Frey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 932, 953. For his more extensive discussion of morality and the nonhuman, see Zamir’s Ethics and the Beast: A Speciesist Argument for Animal Liberation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007).
- 66.
Franz Kafka, The Metamorphosis, in The Metamorphosis and Other Stories, ed. Jason Barker, trans. Donna Freed (1915; New York: Barnes and Noble Classics, 2003), 7.
- 67.
Kafka, The Metamorphosis, 7–8.
- 68.
Duchovny, Holy Cow, 5. On degrading animal imagery, see too Adams, Neither Man nor Beast, xxxi.
- 69.
The song is “Like Animals,” in Doctor Dolittle, directed by Richard Fleischer, music and lyrics by Leslie Bricusse, Lionel Newman, and Alexander Courage (Twentieth Century Fox, 1967). My transcription. Though quite humorous, the lyrics are remarkably progressive, offering a sharp critique of human indifference to animals. For a rejoinder to the term “stupid chickens,” see Deb Olin Unferth, Barn 8 (Minneapolis: Graywolf, 2020), 203–204. The novel presents a picture of chickens as complex beings, most directly in descriptions of the white leghorn hen Bwwaauk, who escapes from an industrial egg operation (35, 170–72, 200–202, 248).
- 70.
Donovan, Aesthetics of Care, 46. On this, see too 47, 48, 100–101.
- 71.
Donovan, Aesthetics of Care, 47; cf. 46, 168.
- 72.
Applegate, The One and Only Ivan, backmatter, unnumbered page.
- 73.
Applegate, The One and Only Ivan, 229–32, 235; cf. 151–52.
- 74.
Applegate, The One and Only Ivan, 234, 235.
- 75.
Applegate, The One and Only Ivan, 104; cf. 173.
- 76.
Robert Burns, “To a Mouse,” in The Norton Anthology of English Literature: The Major Authors, 9th ed. vol. 2, ed. Stephen Greenblatt et al. (New York: Norton, 2013), 85–86. Unwitting harm owing to human action is a topic addressed by other writers too. For instance, we read of “careless” acts causing the death of animals in Sara Pennypacker’s Pax, among them, the plowing of fields killing mice, in an echo of Burns, as well as the damming of rivers, which kills fish ([New York: Balzer and Bray, 2016], 64–65).
- 77.
Donovan, Aesthetics of Care, 1–2.
- 78.
Donovan, Aesthetics of Care, viii.
- 79.
Josephine Donovan, “Attention to Suffering: Sympathy as a Basis for Ethical Treatment of Animals,” in The Feminist Care Tradition in Animal Ethics, ed. Josephine Donovan and Carol J. Adams (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 189.
- 80.
Davis, Gospel of Kindness, 40. Davis attributes the term cruelty narrative to Elizabeth E. Clark, “‘The Sacred Rights of the Weak’: Pain, Sympathy, and the Culture of Individual Rights in Antebellum America,” Journal of American History 82.2 (1995): 476–77. On connections between early animal rights efforts and abolition, see too Diane L. Beers, For the Prevention of Cruelty: The History and Legacy of Animal Rights Activism in the United States (Athens, Ohio: Swallow/Ohio University Press, 2006), 24–28.
- 81.
Davis, Gospel of Kindness, 42.
- 82.
Beers, Prevention of Cruelty, 25.
- 83.
Adams, Day Gone By, 100, 101, 102.
- 84.
Kathi Appelt, The Underneath, with drawings by David Small (New York: Atheneum, 2008), 85.
- 85.
White, Trumpet of the Swan, 95, 109.
- 86.
White, Trumpet of the Swan, 104.
- 87.
White, Trumpet of the Swan, 104, 108.
- 88.
White, Trumpet of the Swan, 100–102.
- 89.
Patteson, Pussy Meow, 25.
- 90.
Patteson , Pussy Meow, 26. On the “Humane Agent,” see too 82, and for the narrator’s hope that more communities will establish humane societies, 82–83. This convention of attaching ill-treatment of animals to misbehaving children is widespread. A rabbit lists possible disasters resulting from a new human family moving into the area in Robert Lawson’s Rabbit Hill. After mentioning dogs, cats, ferrets, shotguns, rifles, explosives, traps, snares, and poisons, she adds, “There might even be Boys!” ([1944; New York: Puffin, 1972], 28, italics original). In Dodie Smith’s The Hundred and One Dalmatians, a small boy holds out a piece of bread, taunting the desperately hungry dogs Pongo and Missis. They approach cautiously “with love” but the boy then throws a rock at Pongo, injuring him. The boy lures Missis by the same means again later. When there is no rock at hand, he throws the piece of bread at her “with rage, not love.” Repetition of the term love signals a contrast between the dogs’ civilized, humane, loving behavior with that of the uncivilized, cruel, and unloving child (1956; with illustrations by Michael Dooling [New York: Puffin, 1989], 69–72). I give other examples of naughty children and animal cruelty elsewhere.
- 91.
Taken from Davis, Gospel of Kindness, 48. These welfare clubs traced their roots to the temperance movement in England. Founded in Leeds in 1847, working class children belonging to Band of Hope clubs pledged to abstain from alcohol, tobacco, and profane language (46). The lineage is plain to see. As Davis notes, “The Bands of Hope and its animal protectionist descendant used a universal, inclusionary rhetoric of kindness” (48). By incorporating the movement to her story, Patteson echoes Margaret Marshall Saunders’s Beautiful Joe, which also promotes the Band of Mercy clubs.
- 92.
Patteson, Pussy Meow, 100. On the boy’s letter to Santa Claus requesting a kitten, see 87, and on the Band of Mercy, see too 125–27.
- 93.
Patteson, Pussy Meow, 98–99.
- 94.
Patteson, Pussy Meow, 29.
- 95.
Patteson, Pussy Meow, 20, 81.
- 96.
Patteson , Pussy Meow, 79, 80, 81, 225–226. Fittingly, the name Morton brings the French mort, death, to mind. Alcohol and animal abuse are often aligned. For instance, Jenkins in Saunders’s Beautiful Joe is a heavy drinker, as is Gar Face in Appelt’s The Underneath (see e.g., 20, 22, 64–65, 119, 120, 212–14, 242–45, 284, 285). Other examples appear throughout. Dodie Smith’s villain Cruella de Vil represents a lighter, playful version of this pattern. Among other things, she was expelled from school for drinking ink (Hundred and One Dalmatians, 8). Cruella is villainous, of course, because she wants to make fur coats of the dalmatians’ fur. This fashion obsession makes her the literary descendent of a woman in Hugh Lofting’s Doctor Dolittle’s Puddleby Adventures who buys a dalmatian because he matches her polka-dot silk gown. It humiliates Dapple to be an accessory in the “woman’s wardrobe,” a mere “boudoir ornament” (in Doctor Dolittle: The Complete Collection, vol. 3 [1952; New York: Aladdin, 2019], 317). Also like Cruella, this woman is domineering over her husband (317). For another storyline addressing animal cruelty in relation to fashion, see the episode about the green-breasted martins, hunted because their feathers look good on felt hats (421–37, esp. 425–26).
- 97.
Patteson , Pussy Meow, 20–21. Welfare-oriented animal stories often stress the need to intervene in cases of cruelty, and as is often the case, Anna Sewell’s novel is a likely template for later books. When the suggestively named Mr. Wright first appears, the cab driver Jeremiah Barker points him out to his daughter and says the man is “a real gentleman” because he is considerate and kind to people. He is also, we learn a few paragraphs later, kind to animals and steps in to help when he witnesses the abuse of a horse (154, 155–56).
- 98.
Patteson, Pussy Meow, 28–29.
- 99.
Kehret, Ghost Dog, 3.
- 100.
Kehret, Ghost Dog, 5. Italics original. A chained-up dog also figures prominently in Kathi Appelt’s The Underneath. The baying, blues-singing bloodhound named Ranger spends years chained to a post, which accounts for repeated reference to his loneliness (e.g., 6–7, 10, 16, 24, 141, 231, 263). Gar Face is the dog’s master and throughout there is emphasis placed on his cruelty in leaving the dog to languish: “she [Ranger’s friend, a kitten] would not leave Ranger. One day she would figure out how to unfasten the chain, and they would leave this God-forsaken house with its terrible tenant and never look back” (117). As it turns out, an ancient snake breaks the chain, finally releasing Ranger from his bondage (307–308). Here, the author maps out the moral spectrum by contrasting the civilized, loving, ‘humane’ behavior of an animal, and the uncivilized, hateful, ‘beastly’ actions of a person.
- 101.
Kehret, Ghost Dog, 7.
- 102.
Kehret, Ghost Dog, 8–9.
- 103.
Susan Hughes, Cubs All Alone, Wild Paws (Toronto: Scholastic, 2004), 10, 13–14, 15.
- 104.
Hughes, Cubs All Alone, 12 (always alone, scared of him), 26 (“nasty”).
- 105.
Hughes, Cubs All Alone, 16, 26.
- 106.
Hughes, Cubs All Alone, 60, 61–62.
- 107.
Max Brooks, World War Z: An Oral History of the Zombie War (New York: Three Rivers, 2006), 290. On the military uses of dogs, see 282–92.
- 108.
Brooks, World War Z, 290.
- 109.
Brooks, World War Z, 292.
- 110.
Brooks, World War Z, 290–91.
- 111.
Stephen King and Owen King, Sleeping Beauties (New York: Scribner, 2017), 254. Full scene, 252–54.
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Gilmour, M.J. (2020). Introduction: The Parallel Voices of Modern Animal Welfare Movements and a Literature of Compassion. In: Creative Compassion, Literature and Animal Welfare. The Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55430-9_1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55430-9_1
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Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham
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Online ISBN: 978-3-030-55430-9
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