Abstract
Although semiotics of the structuralist tradition, which devoted itself to the theorization and analysis of visual language in the 1980s and 1990s, did not directly
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
While cognitivist visual semiotics such as that of Groupe µ never posed the question of visuality in terms of enunciation, all the works on frames and framing carried out by Groupe µ developed, from an “indexical” standpoint, the enunciative problematics which interest us here. See in this respect Groupe µ (1992) and Klinkenberg (2016).
- 3.
See the work by Beyaert-Geslin (2009) on enunciative authenticity in the context of war reporting and photography, as well as Dondero (2014a, b) on enunciation in fashion advertising photography and in the project of public architecture, respectively. See also Beyaert-Geslin (2017) on portraits in the worlds of art and of the press, as well as the work by Basso Fossali and Dondero (2011) which proposes a reflection on the specificity of photographic enunciation, applied to artistic and scientific statuses.
- 4.
- 5.
By “figurative formant” we mean packets of visual features, of varying density, which the reading grid, of a semantic nature, constitutes into units endowed with meaning; in other words, we pass from visual figures to object-signs: “A more attentive examination of the act of semiosis would show that the principal operation constituting it is the selection of a certain number of visual features and their subsequent globalization. This is a simultaneous grasping that transforms the bundle of heterogeneous features into a format, that is, into a unit of the signifier. This unit is recognizable, when it is framed by the grid of the signified, as the partial representation of an object from the natural world. […] We can see that the formation of formants, at the time of semiosis, in no more than an articulation of the planar signifier, its segmentation into legible discrete units. This segmentation is done with a view to a certain kind of reading of the visual object, but […] it does not exclude other possible segmentations of the signifier” (Greimas 1989, p. 633).
- 6.
For a history of the linguistic and semiotic theories of the viewpoint, see Rabatel (1997).
- 7.
TN: Throughout this book, the French terms langue and parole will be employed in accordance with their usages as established by Saussurean linguistics and Greimasian semiotics.
- 8.
On the relation between utterances, genres, and statuses in the visual field, see Basso Fossali and Dondero (2011).
- 9.
See in this respect the analysis of Paul Klee’s painting Blumen-Mythos by Thürlemann (1982), where the researcher attempts to identify classes of surface elements and linear elements which however can only be located within the painting itself and are not generalizable to other pictorial productions.
- 10.
A counterexample can be found with Paul Klee (1964) who constructed a sort of pictorial alphabet. We will return to this in the third part of the book.
- 11.
For example, we can find a langue characterizing each painter, as did Jean-Marie Floch in Petites mythologies de l’œil et de l’esprit: Pour une sémiotique plastique (Eye on mind; a collection of short mythologies: Towards a theory of plastic semiotics) (1985) regarding Kandinsky’s production. This approach enabled him to emit hypotheses on the meaning of Composition IV, the painting at the center of his analysis, by starting with several comparisons with earlier paintings by the Russian artist. In order to understand abstract paintings such as Composition IV, Floch started from the more figurative paintings of Kandinsky’s early production where the composition of colors and lines resembles those of Composition IV. Floch reconstructed a local and historically attested microsystem which shows within which configurations Kandinsky’s trajectory may be observed. This valuable analysis problematizes the difficulties in locating general grammatical rules for visual langue and shows a possible solution: finding local and historically attested microsystems which regulate liberty in composing and interpreting.
- 12.
See Basso Fossali (2014).
- 13.
It is important to keep in mind that langue has a translational function: It is the function of the system to make various discourses commensurable. See in this respect Benveniste (1974, 1981), when he describes the difference between verbal signs and visual signs, while denying the existence of visual langue: “Therefore, the meaning of art may never be reduced to a convention accepted by two partners. New terms must always be found, since they are unlimited in number and unpredictable in nature; thus they must be redevised for each work and, in short, prove unsuitable as an institution. On the other hand, the meaning of language is meaning itself, establishing the possibility of all exchange and of all communication, and thus of all culture” (1981, p. 12, emphasis added).
- 14.
Several disciples of Greimas have indeed followed Benveniste when he asserted that the antidote against the liberty of visual signs is to concentrate on a sole image as a closed system of signification. See Benveniste on the issue of colors, for example: “The artist chooses them, blends them, and arranges them on the canvas according to his taste; finally, it is in composition alone that, technically speaking, they assume a ‘signification’ through selection and arrangement. Thus the artist creates his own semiotics; he sets up his own oppositions in features which he renders significant in their order. Therefore, he does not acquire a repertory of signs, recognized as such, nor does he establish one? Color, the material, comprises an unlimited variety of gradations in shade, of which none is equivalent to the linguistic sign. […] The signifying relationships of any artistic language are to be found within the compositions that make us aware of it” (1974, p. 12, our translation). According to Benveniste, only verbal language is analyzable as a stable system of significations because it depends upon a general system which sets the rules of comprehension for specific processes.
- 15.
Concerning domains and enunciation, see Bordron (2016). What we call “status” includes what Bordron refers to with the notion of the “economy” of images. “Economy” designates the ordering which founds the possibilities of values and their eventual circulation. For Bordron, interrogating the economy of an image amounts to wondering within what global order it is inscribed, which fundamental articulation it presupposes in order for it to be understood. Regarding the status of photographic images, and namely regarding the religious, scientific (biology and astrophysics), and political statuses of images, see Basso Fossali and Dondero (2011).
- 16.
We will return in this regard to the works of Warburg and Focillon from the contemporary perspective of computational and quantitative (distant reading) analyses which aim to identify the degrees of visual similarity within large collections of images.
- 17.
In the case of art, for example, and especially in painting, the exceeding of rules (in the sense of conventions which exist in each era) is exactly what benefits the artist in view of surprising/de-competentializing the spectator and for sparking the search for new configurations and new conceptions of space. What is prohibited, in art, is rather of the order of “doing what has already been done”: The rule is therefore not internal to a stable grammar, but depends on local usages. On matters of negation of tradition and of renewal in the field of the plastic arts, see Beyaert-Geslin (2012).
- 18.
See Greimas and Courtés (1982, “Disengagement” (débrayage) and “Engagement” (embrayage) entries): “We can try to define disengagement as the operation by which the domain of the enunciation disjuncts and projects forth from itself, at the moment of the language act and in view of manifestation, certain terms bound to its base structure, so as thereby to constitute the foundational elements of the discursive utterance. For example, if we take the domain of the enunciation as a syncretism of “I-here-now,” disengagement […] will consist in inaugurating the utterance […]. Actantial disengagement, then, in its first steps, will consist in disjuncting a “not-I” from the subject of the enunciation and projecting it into the utterance, temporal disengagement in postulating a “not-now” distinct from the time of the enunciation, spatial disengagement in opposing a “not-here’ to the place of enunciation” (“Disengagement” entry, pp. 87–88). Engagement is defined in opposition and in complementarity to disengagement: Disengagement “is the effect of the expulsion from the domain of the enunciation of the category terms which serve as support for the utterance, whereas engagement designates the effect of a return to the enunciation” (“Engagement” entry, p. 100).
- 19.
In painting, it is the enclosure ensured by the frame which allows us to postulate that the painting functions as a semiotic microsystem enabling us to identify centers of attention, relations between center and periphery, equilibria between planes at various depths, the economy of the directional forces of the lighting, etc. See in this respect Thom (1983). Concerning picture frames and statue bases from a Peircean and diagrammatical perspective, see Dondero (2014d).
- 20.
- 21.
Concerning the relation between assertion and assumption, see Fontanille (2006). Assertion, which can be assimilated to disengagement, concerns making the content of an utterance present in the discourse’s field of presence, whereas assumption, which can be assimilated with engagement, concerns the appropriation of the content of the utterance by the subject of the enunciation.
- 22.
The term “observer” is used here as a synonym of “enunciatee,” which is to be taken as the simulacrum of a real, flesh and blood spectator.
- 23.
For a critique of this theory of enunciation as a theory of simulacra constructed on the model of the conversation in presence, hence on an extralinguistic basis, see Paolucci (2021).
- 24.
For a panoramic glimpse at the debates in enunciative linguistics and in Greimasian and post-Greimasian semiotics, see Colas-Blaise (2010).
- 25.
We here return to the famous distinction by Kerbrat-Orecchioni (1980). The debate concerning the “restricted” version of enunciation (the uttered enunciation) and its “extended” version (the referential enunciation) is still topical in the sciences of language. The extended version of this theory pushes back the limits of the explorations to the point of describing the communication situation, the enunciation scene, and its components—the protagonists of the discourse, the spatio-temporal circumstances, the conditions of production/reception, the historical and cultural setting, and the generic and sociolectal determinations. See Maingueneau (2012, 2014).
- 26.
We namely refer to Chapter Five, “Annonciations toscanes.”.
- 27.
See on this matter (1966, pp. 206–207, our translation). The historical utterance, according to Benveniste, is characterized by the third person, the past tense (the aorist), and by a distant location. Events from the past which are over and done appear to tell their own story by themselves, without any intervention of the speaker in the account. Discursive enunciation, on the other hand, is characterized by any utterance supposing a speaker and auditor in the present, and by an intention of the former to influence the latter in some way. Benveniste asserts that it is mostly oral discourses or “the mass of writing that reproduces oral discourse or that borrows its manner of expression and its purposes: correspondence, memoirs, plays, didactic works, in short, all the genres in which someone addresses himself as the speaker, and organizes what he says in the category of person” (Benveniste 1966, p. 209, our translation). This fundamental distinction by Benveniste corresponds to what Greimas calls “utterative disengagement” (“débrayage énoncif”) and “enunciative disengagement” (“débrayage énonciatif”). See in this respect Greimas and Courtés (1982, “Disengagement” entry, p. 88).
- 28.
- 29.
See in this respect the analysis of some of Matisse’s paintings by Beyaert-Geslin (2004) who maintains that everything in the Frenchman’s paintings unfolds in the present since all represented objects (carpets, tables, paintings, windows, wallpapers, etc.) are disposed in the foreground, presenting the observer with only a single plane of depth.
- 30.
Concerning internal narration as deployed by a sole image and external narration as supported by multiple images, see Vouilloux (2013) and namely, in what concerns internal narration, the relation between substrate, plane, and scene. According to the author, when the plane and the scene are not in a relation of homology, there occurs an opacification of narration which enables the image’s reflective work to emerge.
- 31.
For an analysis of temporality within a spatial art (sculpture), please refer to the fundamental text by Petitot (2004), especially the first chapter (“Goethe et le Laocoon ou l’acte de naissance de l’analyse structurale”) which will be discussed later. Other reference texts are Fontanille (1994) and Beyaert-Geslin (2013).
- 32.
- 33.
Concerning the issue of the formation of forms from a haptic force inherent to enunciative and perceptual acts (disengagement/engagement) of painting, of looking at, and of reading the image, see Estay Stange (2014).
- 34.
Concerning spatial aspectuality in the framework of tensive semiotics, see Badir (2017).
- 35.
See the issue of the journal Carte semiotiche directed by Mengoni (2013) regarding the anachronism and plurality of temporalities traversing images.
- 36.
See Dondero (2009c).
- 37.
On the iconization of writings, see Klinkenberg and Polis (2018).
- 38.
Etienne-Jules Marey (1830–1904), Vol du Goëland (1887–1888).
- 39.
Didi-Huberman and Mannoni (2004) conclude their analysis of Marey’s chronophotographs as follows: “introducing the notion of time into the image consists, here, in introducing discontinuity into the graphical curve and continuity into photographic instantaneity” (pp. 242–243, our translation). Regarding the continuous and discontinuous in Marey’s work, see Dondero (2009c, 2010b).
- 40.
As explained by Basso Fossali (2013), “signified memory” pertains to the fact that the plastic form is constituted by signs which may simulate a gesture of production which does not necessarily occur during the practice of realization. In other words, the plastic form is semiotized because it can lie (Eco 1976) and display, for example, a material effect as if it were the result of the artist’s intention, whereas this effect may have been naturally due to the characteristics of the raw materials. Basso Fossali insists on the fact that the plastic form attested in a painting does not necessarily coincide with the form of the real, actual, historically realized gesture.
- 41.
The first strategy, the “encyclopedic” one, is followed by two others, which cannot be exhaustively commented here. They may be summarized as follows: The second strategy concerns the material features of the signifier of the iconic sign—the fact that certain features are interpreted as the products of a dynamic process arising over the course of the production of the sign. For example, the blurring of a cathedral would not elicit an encyclopedic hypothesis, but a stylistic one: The blur is either attributed to the observer or to the producer of the signifier, but in no case is it attributed to the object, the iconic type “cathedral” not possessing the feature of “mobility.” The third strategy of temporalization of space concerns indexical signs, that is, arbitrary signs, such as speed lines in comics which signify “fast movement.” These second and third strategies of comprehension of the production of movement in images seem less interesting than the two others which we comment in greater detail because they depend on figurative or logical elements which do not illustrate the specificity of the functioning of visual language. For an exhaustive panorama of the attempts made in art history to study temporality in paintings, in its various perspectives (time of the story, time of the artwork, movements, duration, and the issues of aspect, of cyclical temporality, of the spectator’s time, of anachronicity, etc.), see Jollet (2012). For a panorama of the theories of narrativity and for analyses of images by Paul Klee, see Colas-Blaise (2019).
- 42.
See Dondero (2009b).
- 43.
As already outlined in the introduction, the spectator may of course abandon the place that was intended for him or her by the enunciator, or may even subvert it: This is what Certeau (2011) anticipated, from a more general perspective. This is also why each image embodies a possible intersubjective relation, semiotics being a discipline devoted to the conditions of possibility of meaning—and not to the actual, experienced meaning. On the relation between contemporary semiotics and the philosophy of Certeau, see Dondero (2015b).
- 44.
- 45.
- 46.
On delegate observers as cognitively and passionally modalizing the spectator, see Thürlemann (1980).
- 47.
See Basso Fossali and Dondero (2011) and namely the last chapter, “Photos en forme de ‘nous’. L’éclipse représentationnelle d’un couple.”.
- 48.
This schema functions as a semiotic square through the relations of contradiction and conflict which can be read as both logical relations as well as relations of narrative transformation.
- 49.
Regarding the portraits produced by this artist, see Beyaert-Geslin and Lloveria (2013).
- 50.
See for example The Ecstasy of St. Cecilia by Raphael (1514–1515, National Art Gallery of Bologna).
- 51.
- 52.
- 53.
On the graduality of negation in verbal language, see Desclés (2014).
- 54.
- 55.
Concerning the various levels of pertinence in analysis, see Fontanille (2008).
- 56.
Groupe µ (1978).
- 57.
- 58.
Concerning visual enunciation and its relations to rhetoric, see Dondero (2013).
- 59.
- 60.
- 61.
See Kempf (1997).
- 62.
Sartre (2010, p. 56, sq.).
- 63.
Fontanille and Zilberberg (1998).
- 64.
The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, 1953, gelatin silver print, 11.7 × 15.1 cm.
- 65.
For instance, in Francis Bacon’s Study after Velázquez’s Portrait of Pope Innocent X, 1953, Des Moines Art Center, Iowa.
- 66.
Raphael, The Ecstasy of St. Cecilia, 1514–1515, National Art Gallery of Bologna.
- 67.
The book by Stoichita (2015) analyses metavisual devices such as windows, doors, curtains, mirrors, and geographical maps that may be seen in early modern paintings. Stoichita takes into consideration the flatness of the surface (geographical maps) as well as the use of framing so as to construct various types of depths—for example, with the use of curtains which produce a form of restricted, exclusive visibility (revelation/concealment). Stoichita studies an example, Las Meninas by Velázquez, which presents all kinds of surfaces that are more or less opaque, transparent, reflective, and which thereby establish various types of relations with the enunciative deixis. All of these devices would have, according to Stoichita, the ability to found a reflection on pictorial language. In our view, they may be considered as enunciative devices which problematize the acts of production and of observation (act of focalization).
- 68.
Concerning participative categories according to Hjelmslev, see Paolucci (2010).
- 69.
On the mirror as locus of the narcissism of Susanna and of the enunciatee, see the sharp analysis by Fontanille (1989, op. cit., pp. 98–104).
- 70.
For reflections in art history regarding the ability of an image to define itself as concealed or as being not fully offered to the gaze of the observer, see Bredekamp (2017).
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Dondero, M.G. (2020). The Theory of Enunciation: From Linguistics to Visual Semiotics. In: The Language of Images. Lecture Notes in Morphogenesis. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-52620-7_2
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