Abstract
The opening chapter lines out its main research question: what is a city according to the Hebrew Bible? How is it conceptualized, as a category, and how is this category given form in the text with specific language and given a role within a particular part of the text? The introduction also explains the starting points of the study. Furthermore, it offers a short overview of previous studies on (urban) space in the Hebrew Bible by means of three key issues: the negative portrayal of cities, the city-as-woman and the centrality of Jerusalem. It concludes with the further organization of the volume.
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Notes
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Gray explicitly addresses the container image as a conceptual metaphor on a par with that of the personified city. Others have pointed out other metaphors for the city in the biblical corpus, although less extensively or specifically as urban metaphor next to the female city. In her study of gendered language in warfare, Cynthia Chapman, for example, states at a certain point that other images occur to express the relationship with the Assyrians, such as, the lion, the flood, or locusts. Yet, after a short discussion, she concludes that the personified relationship offers more opportunities and is more widespread in the corpus (2004, 68). Also in Christl Maier’s study of Jerusalem, it seems that at least one other metaphor is present, that of the city as height, or as she names it, “the sacred mountain.” Maier identifies this image, which she never calls a metaphor or a conceptual metaphor, as typical of preexilic traditions of Jerusalem’s depiction (2008c, 30–59). The conceptual level in her analysis is formed by “identifying the mountain [i.e., the physical mountain on which Jerusalem is located] with Zaphon, the traditional divine abode in Syria, and by relating Jerusalem implicitly to the city surrounded by water, the Mesopotamian temple city” (59). Another example of other metaphors, or at least a suggestion of them, can be found in Stephen Bennett’s piece in The City in the Hebrew Bible (2018, 220–23). In his section ‘Conception of the City’, Bennett discusses conceptions of the biblical city, following John Rogerson’s lead (2009, 21–39). However, a closer look at the analysis of Bennett reveals that the conceptions are closely connected to particular stories, and that they, if expressing larger categories rather than individual ideas, are cityscapes, thus applied concepts rather than the concepts themselves. He mentions, among others, the city as “symbol of human rebellion,” “symbol of greed and oppression,” “symbol of universal peace and justice,” and “a link between heaven and earth” (2018, 220–21).
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This does not mean that reading for historical space in the Hebrew Bible is not valid or useful. Rather the plea is one for a similar self-evidence for literary space. Both have their merits.
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Mary Mills notes “cities [i.e., textual cities] are constructed via imaginative responses to the space that the urban environment offers” (2012, x).
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For a problematizing of these contradictions, see, among others, O’Connor (2008, 18–39). Christopher Meredith and Elaine James both adopt approaches that allow textual space to be and remain ambiguous (Meredith 2013; James 2017b). They are accompanied by many modern literary studies of cities, which emphasize the tension present in cities (Anderson 2018, 64–65). Anderson mentions for that matter the works by Oakes (1997), Festa-McCormick (1979), Preston and Simpson-Housley (1994), Lehan (1998) and Alter (2005), but various other titles can be added. A simple look at introductory volumes such as The Palgrave Handbook of Literature and the City (2016) and The Routledge Handbook of Literature and Space (2017) reveals the same paradoxes and complex presentation of urban space.
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For a short overview of literary approaches to biblical narrative space, see Jiang (2018, 25–28). In addition to Bar Efrat (1989, 184–96), a temporal focus can be found in Jan Fokkelman’s work on biblical narrative (1999, 97–111). Luke Gärtner-Brereton has argued against these works and for a more central position of space in biblical narrative, “treating ‘space’ itself as determinate within the biblical text, rather than an ancillary or secondary characteristic” (2008, 5). He is not the first one to do so, as can be seen in Michael Fishbane’s work Biblical Text and Texture, in which both the Garden of Eden and the Exodus are considered as unifying motifs within the biblical corpus rather than simple and unimportant spatial references (1998, 111–40). Likewise, Yairah Amit argues for a reading of biblical space not as “a historical record” but as “always functional … in the story” (2001, 119, 125).
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William Millar explores this merger, with a Bakhtinian ring, explicitly and this in light of social space (2007).
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Both shifts take place in the 1970s and 1980s, with the work by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (2003/1980) as exemplary for the cognitive turn and that by Henri Lefebvre (1974), Yi-Fu Tuan (1977) and Michel Foucault (1984) as paramount for the spatial turn. What is more, cognitive studies pay particular attention to the spatial fundaments of cognition and language in particular (e.g., Haspelmath 1997; Levinson 2003; Evans and Chilton 2009).
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The cognitive turn itself entailed much more than a focus on ‘metaphors we live by,’ however, in biblical and religious studies this is the idea that has had the most impact. Witness the fact that there are various volumes applying cognitive metaphor theory or conceptual blending to the biblical corpus, but virtually none that adopt cognitive grammar or possible worlds theory. For the former, see, among others, Macky (1990), Van Hecke (2005), Hayes (2008), Jindo (2010), and Howe and Green (2014). To be fair, cognitive grammar does feature in one of the essays in Howe and Green by Ellen van Wolde (2014, 193–222) as well as in van Wolde’s monograph Reframing Biblical Studies (2009). However, she forms the exception rather than the rule.
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This framework will be introduced more fully in the next chapter. The book series ‘Constructions of Space’ forms an excellent starting point to see the framework’s adoption as well as adaptation in the biblical field (Berquist and Camp 2007, 2008; George 2013; Prinsloo and Maier 2013; Økland, de Vos, and Wenell 2016). Similarly informative is the edited volume by David Gunn and Paula McNutt (2002).
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Nicolae Roddy traces this anti-urban tone throughout the whole Hebrew Bible, concluding: “From the vantage point of Israel’s exiled seers and visionaries, the city remains little more than an inherently incomplete, human-made construct of magnificent emptiness and fleeting shadow” (2008, 21). Earlier, potentially positive city views are negatively colored in later rereadings and editions, according to him.
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Many scholars defend this position (e.g., Sarna 1989, 80; Hamilton 1990, 356; Arnold 2009, 118–19), although it has been challenged in the past decades, in particular by the studies by Ellen van Wolde (2000) and Theodore Hiebert (2007). Whereas the new readings move away from the idea that Gen 11:1–9 was a story of pride and punishment, their proposed reading (as that of a story of the earth focusing on the origin of multiple languages and peoples) still contains an anti-urban ring. God favors the earth over the city, and diversity over unity. Nevertheless, Hiebert concludes “it is doubtful whether the Bible contains any true anti-urban ideology at all” (2007, 40).
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Carroll, for example, observes that Jerusalem is the city that is portrayed negatively and positively, whereas all other city spaces only appear in negative circumstances (2001, 49).
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Figure-ground dynamics are used in cognitive stylistics to explain how readers’ attention shifts during reading. The terms are adopted from visual arts and Gestalt psychology (Stockwell 2002, 13–26).
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Maier points out that “many interpretations, especially feminist ones, focus too much on the negative depiction of the female character without taking into account that the body of this ‘woman’ at the same time represents the space of a city, and even a particular city” (2008c, 112).
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The terms ‘text-world’ and ‘discourse-world’ are central in Text World Theory, developed in the 1990s by Paul Werth (1999) and further elaborated upon in the 2000s by Joanna Gavins (2007). Simply put, readers juggle two worlds when they read a text: the world in which the characters live, the text-world; and the world in which they themselves are reading the text, the discourse-world. Neither of these worlds is singular or static, meaning that the text-world is constantly updated as readers are given new information. What is more, texts create several text-worlds through which readers have to navigate; for example, when writers include a character’s dream or thoughts, the matrix text-world is temporarily left. As far as discourse-worlds go, the biblical text has had many over the ages. The discourse-world that has received most attention is that of the original audience.
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It suffices to consult any given commentary on, for example, Isaiah, to find that city references are often disambiguated as either city or people. Some studies even make the distinction crucial to their overall argument (e.g., Low 2013).
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Vermeulen, K. (2020). The City for Starters. In: Conceptualizing Biblical Cities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-45270-4_1
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