Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

“Defying Stereotypes Is a Plus”: Classifying Gender, Sex, and Sexuality Content in Visual Materials

  • Conference paper
  • First Online:
Sustainable Digital Communities (iConference 2020)

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Computer Science ((LNISA,volume 12051))

Included in the following conference series:

Abstract

As engagement with various types of visual materials like graphic novels and video games has increased, users have become aware of how gender, sex, and sexuality are presented in these materials. To understand the information needs of these users, the first author adopted diary study and interview methods based on the uses and gratification theory. Through thematic analysis of this data, we learned participants wanted to search for visual materials based on gender and sexuality representation and depictions of sexual activities. To situate this finding in the context of existing ratings and recommendations systems, we then used domain analysis to evaluate a maximum variance sample of these systems. We learned currently available visual material ratings and recommendations systems fail to meet users’ gender and sexuality related search needs. We discuss the relationship between classification systems and censorship to unpack the challenges of providing more descriptive and nuanced classifications of visual materials. Our findings identify gaps in current ratings and recommendations systems and suggest ways to move toward more equitable information access.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    https://www.esrb.org/ratings/.

  2. 2.

    https://www.dccomics.com/ratings.

  3. 3.

    https://bbfc.co.uk/what-classification/classification-guidelines.

  4. 4.

    https://icv2.com/articles/comics/view/10114/tokyopop-details-ratings-criteria.

References

  1. American Library Association: Frequently Challenged Books of the 21st Century. http://www.ala.org/advocacy/bbooks/frequentlychallengedbooks/top10

  2. Anderton, K.: Women over 50 are playing more video games than men. https://www.forbes.com/sites/kevinanderton/2019/01/29/women-over-50-are-playing-more-video-games-than-men-infographic/#6bf4ec761093

  3. Benshoff, H., Griffin, S.: America on Film: Representing Race, Class, Gender, and Sexuality at the Movies. Wiley, West Sussex (2011)

    Google Scholar 

  4. Billings, A., Eastman, S.: Selective representation of gender, ethnicity, and nationality in American television coverage of the 2000 summer olympics. Int. Rev. Sociol. Sport 37, 351–370 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1177/101269020203700302

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Chess, S.: The queer case of video games: orgasms, heteronormativity, and video game narrative. Crit. Stud. Media Commun. 33, 84–94 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1080/15295036.2015.1129066

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Chess, S., Evans, N.J., Baines, J.J.: What does a gamer look like? Video games, advertising, and diversity. Telev. New Media 18, 37–57 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1177/1527476416643765

    Article  Google Scholar 

  7. Cho, H.: Understanding users of cross-media information: contexts, gratifications, and features focusing on visual narrative materials (2019)

    Google Scholar 

  8. Cho, H., Donovan, A., Lee, J.H.: Art in an algorithm: a taxonomy for describing video game visual styles. J. Assoc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 69, 633–646 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.23988

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Cho, H., Schmalz, M.L., Keating, S.A., Lee, J.H.: Information needs for anime recommendation: analyzing anime users’ online forum queries. In: 2017 ACM/IEEE Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (JCDL), pp. 1–3. IEEE, Toronto, ON, Canada (2017)

    Google Scholar 

  10. Cho, H., Schmalz, M.L., Keating, S.A., Lee, J.H.: Analyzing anime users’ online forum queries for recommendation using content analysis. J. Doc. 74, 918–935 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1108/jd-08-2017-0122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Corbin, J.M., Strauss, A.L.: Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. SAGE, Los Angeles (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  12. Coyne, S.M., Callister, M.A., Gentile, D.A.: Media violence and judgments of offensiveness: a quantitative and qualitative analysis. Psychol. Pop. Media Cult. 5, 372–389 (2016)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Danziger-Russell, J.: Girls and Their Comics: Finding a Female Voice in Comic Book Narrative. Scarecrow Press, Lanham (2013)

    Google Scholar 

  14. Dill, K.E., Thill, K.P.: video game characters and the socialization of gender roles: young people’s perceptions mirror sexist media depictions. Sex Roles 57, 851–864 (2007)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Dow, B.: Ellen, television, and the politics of gay and lesbian visibility. Crit. Stud. Media Commun. 18, 123–140 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1080/07393180128077

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Downey, J.: Self-censorship in selection of LGBT-themed materials. Ref. User Serv. Q. 53, 104–107 (2013). https://doi.org/10.5860/rusq.53n2.104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Etikan, I.: Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. AJTAS 5, 1 (2016). https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11

  18. Ferguson, C.J.: Positive female role-models eliminate negative effects of sexually violent media. J. Commun. 62, 888–899 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Gentile, D.A., Humphrey, J., Walsh, D.A.: Media ratings for movies, music, video games, and television: a review of the research and recommendations for improvements. Adolesc. Med. Clin. 16, 427–446 (2005)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Hjørland, B.: Domain analysis in information science: eleven approaches – traditional as well as innovative. J. Doc. 58, 422–462 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1108/00220410210431136

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Ivory, J.D.: Still a man’s game: gender representation in online reviews of video games. Mass Commun. Soc. 9, 103–114 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327825mcs0901_6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Jansz, J., Martis, R.G.: The Lara phenomenon: powerful female characters in video games. Sex Roles 56, 141–148 (2007)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Jiang Bresnahan, M., Inoue, Y., Kagawa, N.: Players and whiners? Perceptions of sex stereotyping in Animé in Japan and the US. Asian J. Commun. 16, 207–217 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1080/01292980600638728

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Katz, E., Blumler, J.G., Gurevitch, M.: Uses and gratifications research. Pub. Opin. Q. 37, 509–523 (1974)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Kitzie, V.: That looks like me or something i can do”: affordances and constraints in the online identity work of US LGBTQ+ millennials. J. Assoc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 54, 222–231 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.24217

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Lauzen, M., Dozier, D., Horan, N.: Constructing gender stereotypes through social roles in prime-time television. J. Broadcast. Electron. Media 52, 200–214 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1080/08838150801991971

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Lee, J.H., Clarke, R.I., Cho, H., Windleharth, T.: Understanding appeals of video games for readers’ advisory and recommendation. RUSQ 57, 127 (2017). https://doi.org/10.5860/rusq.57.2.6529

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. LHanson11: Manga recs for girls middle school? (2014). https://www.animenewsnetwork.com/bbs/phpBB2/viewtopic.php?t=2907330

  29. Madžarević, G., Soto-Sanfiel, M.: Positive representation of gay characters in movies for reducing homophobia. Sex. Cult. 22, 909–930 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-018-9502-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Martin, C.D., Reagle, J.: An alternative to government regulation and censorship: content advisory systems for the internet. Cardozo Arts Entertain. Law J. 15, 409–427 (1997)

    Google Scholar 

  31. Martins, N., Williams, D.C., Harrison, K., Ratan, R.A.: A content analysis of female body imagery in video games. Sex Roles 61, 824 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Near, C.E.: Selling gender: associations of box art representation of female characters with sales for teen- and mature-rated video games. Sex Roles 68, 252–269 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-012-0231-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Oliver, M.B.: Affect as a predictor of entertainment choice: the utility of looking beyond pleasure. In: Hartmann, T. (ed.) Media choice: a theoretical and empirical overview, pp. 181–198. Routledge, New York (2009)

    Google Scholar 

  34. Onwuegbuzie, A.J., Leech, N.L., Collins, K.M.T.: Qualitative analysis techniques for the review of the literature. Qual. Rep. 17, 56 (2012)

    Google Scholar 

  35. Pennell, H., Behm-Morawitz, E.: The empowering (super) heroine? The effects of sexualized female characters in superhero films on women. Sex Roles 72, 211–220 (2015)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Perrin, A.: Five facts about Americans and video games. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/09/17/5-facts-about-americans-and-video-games/

  37. Reid, C.: Selling Graphic Novels in a Changing American Marketplace 1. https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/comics/article/78393-selling-graphic-novels-in-a-changing-american-marketplace.html

  38. Robinson, O.C.: Sampling in interview-based qualitative research: a theoretical and practical guide. Qual. Res. Psychol. 11, 25–41 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1080/14780887.2013.801543

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Rubin, A.M.: Television use by children and adolescents. Hum. Commun. Res. 5, 109–120 (1979). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.1979.tb00626.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Rubin, R.: Foundations of Library and Information Science. ALA Neal-Schuman, an imprint of the American Library Association, Chicago (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  41. Shaw, A., Lauteria, E.W., Yang, H., Persaud, C.J., Cole, A.M.: Counting queerness in games: trends in LGBTQ digital game representation, 1985–2005. Int. J. Commun. 13, 1544–1569 (2019)

    Google Scholar 

  42. Williams, D., Martins, N., Consalvo, M., Ivory, J.D.: The virtual census: representations of gender, race and age in video games. New Media Soc. 11, 815–834 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  43. Young, L.: Fear of the Dark: “Race”, Gender and Sexuality in Cinema. Routledge, New York (1996)

    Book  Google Scholar 

  44. Ratings info. https://bbfc.co.uk/what-classification/what-bbfc-ratings-info

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211, USA

    Hyerim Cho

  2. University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A1, Canada

    Amanda Menking

Authors
  1. Hyerim Cho
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Amanda Menking
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hyerim Cho .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. OsloMet – Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway

    Anneli Sundqvist

  2. OsloMet – Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway

    Gerd Berget

  3. University of Boras, Boras, Sweden

    Jan Nolin

  4. OsloMet – Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway

    Kjell Ivar Skjerdingstad

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this paper

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this paper

Cho, H., Menking, A. (2020). “Defying Stereotypes Is a Plus”: Classifying Gender, Sex, and Sexuality Content in Visual Materials. In: Sundqvist, A., Berget, G., Nolin, J., Skjerdingstad, K. (eds) Sustainable Digital Communities. iConference 2020. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 12051. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43687-2_32

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43687-2_32

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-43686-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-43687-2

  • eBook Packages: Computer ScienceComputer Science (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation