Skip to main content

The Case of Al-Qaeda: From Allies to Enemies

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The ‘War on Terror’, State Crime & Radicalization

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in Risk, Crime and Society ((PSRCS))

  • 487 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter explores the relationship between al-Qaeda and the United Kingdom, the United States and Saudi Arabia. It exposes the influence of this relationship on al-Qaeda’s perceptions of foreign policy, global injustices and religious interpretation, and how these collectively constituted factors which influenced the emergence of al-Qaeda and the Taliban. This chapter also considers the detrimental impact of state practices and state crimes in the creation of political instability, sectarian violence and humanitarian suffering in Afghanistan, conditions which facilitated the emergence of al-Qaeda.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 74.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abdo, G. (2006). Mecca and Main Street: Muslim Life in America after 9/11. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Afghanistan Justice Project. (2005). Casting Shadows: War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity: 1978–2001. Retrieved May 1, 2019, from http://afghanistanjusticeproject.org/warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity19782001.pdf

  • Aguirre, J., & Herrera, H. A. (2013). Institutional Weakness and Organized Crime in Mexico: The Case of Michoacán. Trends in Organized Crime, 16(2), 221–238.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad, A. (2008). Islam, Islamisms and the West. Social Register. https://socialistregister.com/index.php/srv/article/view/5873/2769

  • Ahmad, E. (1991, April 7). In Afghanistan: Cease Fire Please. Dawn. Karachi. Retrieved May 1, 2019, from https://www.hampshire.edu/library/archives-and-special-collections

  • Al Qaeda. (2004). Full Text: Al-Qaeda: Madrid Claim. Retrieved May 1, 2019, from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509556.stm

  • Alexiev, A. (2004, March). Understanding Sufism and Its Potential Role in US Policy. Nixon Centre Conference Report. Retrieved May 1, 2018, from http://www.islamawareness.net/Sufism/sufism_us_policy.pdf

  • ATT Monitor. (2016). Dealing in Double Standards: How Arms Sales to Saudi Arabia Are Causing Human Suffering in Yemen. Retrieved May 1, 2019, from https://www.amnesty.org.uk/files/webfm/Documents/issues/att_monitor_case_study_2_-_saudi_arabia_-_final_version.pdf

  • Bakker, E., & Zuijdewijn, J. R. (2015). Jihadist Foreign Fighter Phenomenon in Western Europe: A Low-Probability, High-Impact Threat. The Hague: International Centre for Counter-Terrorism. Retrieved May 1, 2019, from https://www.icct.nl/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/ICCT-Bakker-DeRoyvanZuijdewijn-Jihadist-Foreign-Fighter-Phenomenon-in-Western-Europe-October2015.pdf

  • Barfield, T. (2010). Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Bin Laden, O. (2001). Text: Bin Laden’s Statement. The Guardian. Retrieved May 2, 2012, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/waronterror/story/0,1361,565069,00.html

  • Boyns, D., & Ballard, J. D. (2004). Developing a Sociological Theory for the Empirical Understanding of Terrorism. The American Sociologist, 35(2), 5–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braithwaite, J., & Wardak, A. (2013). Crime and War in Afghanistan, Part 1: The Hobbesian Solution. The British Journal of Criminology, 53(2), 179–196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bronson, R. (2006). Thicker than Oil: America’s Uneasy Partnership with Saudi Arabia. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Byman, D. (2005a). Deadly Connections: States that Sponsor Terrorism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Byman, D. (2005b). Confronting Passive Sponsors of Terrorism. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, Center for Middle East Policy. Retrieved June 21, 2019, https://www.brookings.edu/research/confronting-passive-sponsors-of-terrorism/

  • Choussudovsky, M. (2001). Who Is Osama Bin Laden? Centre for Research for Globalization. Retrieved June 21, 2019, from https://www.globalresearch.ca/osamagate/369

  • Cline, R. S., & Alexander, Y. (1986). Terrorism as State-Sponsored Covert Warfare. Virginia: Hero Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronin, A. K. (2006). How Al-Qaida Ends: The Decline and Demise of Terrorist Groups. International Security, 31(1), 7–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunne, P., & Perlo-Freeman, S. (2003). The Impact of a Responsible Arms Control Policy on the UK Economy. Oxfam. Retrieved June 21, 2019, from http://carecon.org.uk/Users/paul/Oxfamreport7.pdf

  • Dupree, N. H. (1985). The Conscription of Afghan Writers: An Aborted Experiment in Socialist Realism. Central Asian Survey, 4(4), 69–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Duyvesteyn, L. (2004). How New Is the New Terrorism? Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 27(5), 439–454.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerges, A. F. (2015). The Rise and Fall of Al-Qaeda. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Githens-Mazer. (2010). Rethinking the Causal Concept of Islamic Radicalisation. Working Paper. The Committee on Concepts and Methods. Retrieved 21 October 2016, from http://www.concepts-methods.org/Files/WorkingPaper/PC%2042%20Githens-Mazer.pdf

  • Glaze, J. A. (2007). Opium and Afghanistan: Reassessing U.S. Counternarcotics Strategy. US Government. Retrieved May 1, 2018, from https://ssi.armywarcollege.edu/pdffiles/pub804.pdf

  • Gould, E., & Klor, E. F. (2016). The Long-Run Effect of 9/11: Terrorism, Backlash, and the Assimilation of Muslim Immigrants in the West. The Economic Journal, 126(597), 2064–2114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, P. (2002). A Question of State Crime. In P. Scraton (Ed.), Beyond September 11th: An Anthology of Dissent (pp. 71–76). London: Pluto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grob-Fitzgibbon, B. (2005). What Is Terrorism? Redefining a Phenomenon in Time of War. Peace & Change, 30(2), 231–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, P. (2006). Truth, Justice and Stability in Afghanistan. In N. Roht-Arriaza & J. Mariezcurrena (Eds.), Transitional Justice in the Twenty-First Century: Beyond Truth Versus Justice (pp. 255–277). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Gunaratna, R. (2016). Best Practices: Rehabilitating and Reintegrating Foreign Fighters. In H. Abadi (Ed.), Countering Daesh Propaganda: Action-Oriented Research for Practical Policy Outcomes (pp. 84–92). Atlanta: The Carter Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halliday, F. (2002). Two Hours that Shook the World. September 11 2001: Causes and Consequences. London: Saqi Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamm, M., & Spaaij, R. (2015). Lone Wolf Terrorism in America: Using Knowledge of Radicalization Pathways to Forge Prevention Strategies. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henderson-King, D., Henderson-King, E., Bolea, B., Koches, K., & Kauffman, A. (2004). Seeking Understanding or Sending Bombs: Beliefs as Predictors of Responses to Terrorism. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 10(1), 67–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, B. (2006). Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoyle, C., Bradford, A., & Frenett, R. (2015). Becoming Mulan? Female Western Migrants to ISIS. Institute for Strategic Dialogue. Retrieved October 21, 2016, from http://www.strategicdialogue.org/ISDJ296

  • Jones, S. G. (2010). In the Graveyard of Empires: America’s War in Afghanistan. London: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keen, D. (2006). Endless War? Hidden Functions of the ‘War on Terror’. Pluto Press. Retrieved June 21, 2019, from https://www.dawsonera.com/abstract/9781849642774

  • Kepel, G. (2003). The Origins and Development of the Jihadist Movement: From Anti-Communism to Terrorism. Asian Affairs, 34(2), 91–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kepel, G. (2006). Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. London: I.B Tauris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemu, M. N. (2016). Notes on Religion and Countering Violent Extremism. In H. Abadi (Ed.), Countering Daesh Propaganda: Action-Oriented Research for Practical Policy Outcomes (pp. 43–50). Atlanta: The Carter Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levitt, M. (2002). Targeting Terror: U.S. Policy Toward Middle Eastern State Sponsors and Terrorist Organizations, Post-September 11. Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Retrieved June 21, 2019, from https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/TargetingTerror.pdf

  • Maley, W. (1993). The Future of Islamic Afghanistan. Security Dialogue, 24(4), 383–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mamdani, M. (2002). Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: A Political Perspective on Culture and Terrorism. American Anthropologist, 104(3), 766–775.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meloy, J. R., Roshdi, K., Glaz-Ocik, J., & Hoffmann, J. (2015). Investigating the Individual Terrorist in Europe. Journal of Threat Assessment and Management, 2(3–4), 140–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mozaffri, M. (2005). Bin Laden, Islamism and Terrorism. Society, 42(5), 34–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mythen, G., Walklate, S., & Khan, F. (2009). ‘I’m a Muslim, but I’m Not a Terrorist’: Victimisation, Risky Identities and the Performance of Safety. The British Journal of Criminology, 49(6), 736–754.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nacos, B. L. (2006). Terrorism and Counterterrorism. New York: Pearson Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pape, R. (2003). The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. American Political Science Review, 97(3), 343–361.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parenti, C. (2002). America’s Jihad: A history of Origins. In P. Scraton (Ed.), Beyond September 11th: An Anthology of Dissent (pp. 10–18). London: Pluto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Post, J. M., Sprinzak, E., & Denny, L. (2003). The Terrorists in Their Own Words: Interviews with 35 Incarcerated Middle Eastern Terrorists. Terrorism and Political Violence, 15(1), 171–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Prevent. (2011). Prevent Strategy. London: The Stationery Office Limited.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport, D. C. (2012). The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism. In J. Horgan & K. Braddock (Eds.), Terrorism Studies: A Reader (pp. 41–59). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rashid, A. (1999). The Taliban: Exporting Extremism. Foreign Affairs. Retrieved June 21, 2019, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/afghanistan/1999-11-01/taliban-exporting-extremism

  • Rashid, A. (2008). Taliban: Islam, Oil and the New Great Game in Central Asia. London: I.B. Taurus & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rasool, E. (2016). Preventing the Synapse: Transmission of Daesh Religious Signals in Search of Receivers. In H. Abadi (Ed.), Countering Daesh Propaganda: Action-Oriented Research for Practical Policy Outcomes (pp. 38–42). Atlanta: The Carter Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rice, S. K. (2009). Emotions and Terrorism Research: A Case for a Social-Psychological Agenda. Journal of Criminal Justice, 37(3), 248–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sadiki, L. (2002). One ‘Islam’, Many ‘Islams’: Understanding the Arab-Islamic Perspective on 11 September in a Globalising World. Irish Studies in International Affairs, 13(1), 43–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saikal, A. (2004). Islam and the West: Challenges and Opportunities. In V. Hooker & A. Saikal (Eds.), Islamic Perspectives on the New Millennium (pp. 19–31). Singapore: ISEAS Publishing.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Schwenk, E. H. (1945). Legislative Power of the Military Occupant under Article 43, Hague Regulations. The Yale Law Journal, 54(2), 393–416.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scraton, P. (2002). Introduction: Witnessing ‘Terror’, Anticipating ‘War’. In P. Scraton (Ed.), Beyond September 11th: An Anthology of Dissent (pp. 1–9). London: Pluto Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw, E. D. (1986). Political Terrorists: Dangers of Diagnosis and an Alternative to the Psychopathology Model. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 8(3), 359–368.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shay, S. (2005). The Axis of Evil: Iran, Hizballah, and Palestinian Terror. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Speckhard, A., & Akhmedova, K. (2005). Talking to terrorists. The Journal of Psychohistory, 33(2), 125–156.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stenersen, A. (2013). The Relationship Between al-Qaeda and the Taliban. In P. Bergen (Ed.), Talibanistan: Negotiating the Borders Between Terror, Politics, and Religion (pp. 69–93). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • UN. (2005). Resolution 1624 (2005). United Nations. Retrieved June 1, 2019, from https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/RES/1624%20%282005%29

  • UN. (2006). Afghanistan Opium Survey 2006: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved June 21, 2019, from https://www.unodc.org/pdf/research/AFG05%20_full_web_2006.pdf

  • UN. (2018). UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy. Retrieved June 21, 2019, from https://www.un.org/counterterrorism/ctitf/en/un-global-counter-terrorism-strategy

  • Van Dijk, J. (2007). Mafia Markers: Assessing Organized Crime and Its Impact Upon Societies. Trends in Organized Crime, 10(4), 39–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Volpi, F. (2011). Introduction: Critically Studying Political Islam. In F. Volpi (Ed.), Political Islam: A Critical Reader (pp. 1–8). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weenink, A. (2015). Behavioral Problems and Disorders among Radicals in Police Files. Perspectives on Terrorism, 9(2), 17–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, P. (1994). Transnational Criminal Organisations and International Security. Survival, 36(1), 96–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, L. (2007). The Looming Tower: Al Qaeda’s Road to 9/11. London: Penguin Books.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shamila Ahmed .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 The Author(s)

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Ahmed, S. (2020). The Case of Al-Qaeda: From Allies to Enemies. In: The ‘War on Terror’, State Crime & Radicalization. Palgrave Studies in Risk, Crime and Society. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40138-2_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40138-2_4

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-40137-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-40138-2

  • eBook Packages: Law and CriminologyLaw and Criminology (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics