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Mexico

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Space Supporting Latin America

Abstract

The entry of Mexico in the space arena started at the beginning of the space race in 1957. Since then, Mexico’s interest in space has considerably expanded to nowadays encompass multiple issues, from the strengthening of space science and technology to the formation of a national space industry. Moreover, Mexico’s active participation in international space fora and the adoption of international space cooperation agreements shows its increased enthusiasm to take advantage of the benefits of this domain. This chapter presents a descriptive analysis of Mexico’s space sector. The first sections focus on a general overview of the country and the history of Mexico’s space activities. Then, the economic perspective of the sector is analysed particularly in relation to the institutional space budgets and the Mexican space industry. Next, the main characteristics of Mexico’s space and satellite policies and legal frameworks, as well as the space actors responsible to implement them, are presented. Mexico’s participation in the consolidation of international space law, and the current space cooperation agreements celebrated by Mexico are also noted. The last sections focus on issues concerning Mexico’s satellite capabilities, space technology development, and capacity building and outreach, with special emphasis on space education.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Mexico’s Exclusive Economic Zone covers 3,149,920 km2, see Mexico’s General Consulate of El Paso, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, https://consulmex.sre.gob.mx/elpaso/index.php/2016-03-16-21-05-21/2016-03-16-21-07-37 (accessed 23 April 2019).

  2. 2.

    Demographic indicators of the Mexican Republic in 2019, National Population Council, http://www.conapo.gob.mx/work/models/CONAPO/Mapa_Ind_Dem18/index_2.html (accessed 23 April 2019).

  3. 3.

    México en breve, United Nations Development Program, http://www.mx.undp.org/content/mexico/es/home/countryinfo.html#Poblaci%C3%B3n (accessed 23 April 2019).

  4. 4.

    Art. 40, Political Constitution of the United Mexican States, 5 February 1917, last reform 27 January 2016 http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/htm/1.htm (accessed 23 April 2019).

  5. 5.

    Ibid., articles 50, 80 and 94, respectively.

  6. 6.

    Movimiento Regeneración Nacional (MORENA), Partido del Trabajo (PT), and Partido Encuentro Social (PES).

  7. 7.

    Mexican political system, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Mexican Government, https://globalmx.sre.gob.mx/index.php/en/democracy-and-rule-of-law/mexican-political-system (accessed 23 April 2019).

  8. 8.

    Mexico country profile, BBC News, 3 December 2018, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-18095241 (accessed 23 April 2019).

  9. 9.

    OECD Economic Surveys: Mexico, January 2017, p. 10, at http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/Mexico-2017-OECD-economic-survey-overview.pdf.

  10. 10.

    Ibid., p. 38.

  11. 11.

    Ibid., pp. 14–15.

  12. 12.

    Ibid., p. 39.

  13. 13.

    Ibid., p. 42.

  14. 14.

    Ibid., p. 14.

  15. 15.

    Cf. Mexico, Better Life Index, OCDE, http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/mexico/ (accessed 24 April 2019).

  16. 16.

    Ibid.

  17. 17.

    “En México trabajamos más horas, pero somos menos productivos”, Forbes México, 9 January 2018 https://www.forbes.com.mx/mexico-trabajamos-mas-horas-pero-menos-productivos/ (accessed 24 April 2019).

  18. 18.

    Mexico, Better Life Index, op. cit.

  19. 19.

    Ibid.

  20. 20.

    Ibid.

  21. 21.

    The AEM was not the first Mexican space body; the National Commission of Outer Space was created in 1962 but disappeared in 1976. In the same way, the IFT is the successor of the Federal Telecommunications Commission; see Sect. 12.2.

  22. 22.

    Rodríguez Ivet, “Agencia espacial no alcanzó presupuesto”, Expansión, 2 December 2010 https://expansion.mx/manufactura/2010/12/02/agencia-espacial-mexicana (accessed 16 April 2019).

  23. 23.

    AEM has also external resources to complement its budget. For example, in 2015 AEM’s budget allocated by the Congress was MXN 111,983,200 but additional financial resources increased it to MXN 123,483,200. See http://www.apartados.hacienda.gob.mx/presupuesto/temas/pef/2015/docs/09/r09_jzn_feie.pdf.

  24. 24.

    Rodríguez Yazmín, “Agencia Espacial Mexicana es una institución de papel: astronauta José Hernández”, El Universal, 25 October 2018, https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/sociedad/agencia-espacial-mexicana-es-una-institucion-de-papel-astronauta-jose-hernandez (accessed 16 April 2019).

  25. 25.

    He stated that “AEM does not have the budget to design, build and launch a useful communications satellite for the country capable of monitoring the Earth with different cameras and sensors. Until now contributions ranges 100 million pesos but it is required an investment 10 times higher”, Valadéz Blanca, “La AEM require 10 veces más presupuesto: José Hernández”, Milenio, 16 December 2014, https://www.milenio.com/cultura/aem-requiere-10-presupuesto-jose-hernandez (accessed 16 April 2019) (no official translation).

  26. 26.

    Ramírez Rebeca, “Agencia Espacial necesita presupuesto de 100 mdd”, Vanguardia, 21 October 2017, https://vanguardia.com.mx/articulo/agencia-espacial-necesita-presupuesto-de-100-mdd (accessed 16 April 2019).

  27. 27.

    In 2019, science and technology sectors have suffered significant financial reductions. For example, the National Council of Science and Technology (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología) budget decreased by 8% in comparison with the last year. Cf. Contreras Raúl, “Ciencia y tecnología clave para el desarrollo”, Excélsior, 16 February 2019, https://www.excelsior.com.mx/opinion/raul-contreras-bustamante/ciencia-y-tecnologia-clave-del-desarrollo/1296782 (accessed 18 April 2019).

  28. 28.

    In January 2019, IFT brought a constitutional appeal against the Budget of Expenditures of the Federations’ Decree declaring that it infringed its autonomy and prevented it from having minimum resources to operate, Guadarrama José de Jesús, “IFT va por controversia constitucional por recorte presupuestal”, Excélsior, 10 January 2019, https://www.excelsior.com.mx/nacional/ift-va-por-controversia-constitucional-por-recorte-presupuestal/1289467 (accessed 18 April 2019).

  29. 29.

    Cf. Blanco Martha, E. Carrera (Clúster): “Hay que ver el espacio como la vía de desarrollo de México”, Infoespacial.com, 25 March 2019 http://www.infoespacial.com/latam/2019/03/25/noticia-carrera-cluster-espacio-desarrollo-mexico.html (accessed 17 April 2019).

  30. 30.

    Orbit Plan: 2.0: Roadmap for Mexico’s Space Industry, ProMéxico, Mexico City, 2017, https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/414932/Plan_Orbita_2.0.pdf.

  31. 31.

    See “Inauguran en Querétaro encuentro ʽIndustry Dayʼ de oportunidades comerciales en el espacio”, Mexican Space Agency, 19 August 2018, https://www.gob.mx/aem/es/articulos/inauguran-en-queretaro-encuentro-industry-day-de-oportunidades-comerciales-en-el-espacio-170963?idiom=es (accessed 22 April 2019).

  32. 32.

    Orbit Plan 2.0, op. cit., p. 10.

  33. 33.

    Ibid.

  34. 34.

    MXSPACE, Mexican Space Initiative, http://mxspace.mx/nosotros/ (accessed April 17, 2019).

  35. 35.

    Ibid.

  36. 36.

    “Presentan en AEM revista MXSPACE Magazine”, MXSpace, 26 February 2018, http://mxspace.mx/2018/02/presentan-en-aem-revista-mxspace-magazine/ (accessed April 17, 2019).

  37. 37.

    Orbit Plan 2.0, op. cit., p. 34.

  38. 38.

    Latitud 19:36 is an industrial group that aims to become a strategic provider of satellite control services for the national and global space industry. See Latitud 19:36, MXSPACE Iniciativa Espacial Mexicana, http://mxspace.mx/portfolio/latitud-1936/ (accessed 28 September 2019).

  39. 39.

    Orbit Plan 2.0, op. cit., p. 34.

  40. 40.

    Ibid.

  41. 41.

    Ibid.

  42. 42.

    Ibid, p. 35.

  43. 43.

    Ibid, p. 38.

  44. 44.

    Ibid, p. 63.

  45. 45.

    Ibid, p. 44.

  46. 46.

    Ibid.

  47. 47.

    Ibid.

  48. 48.

    There is also a telecommunications policy implemented by the MCT. Due to its comprehensive character and for reasons of space, this policy will not be analyzed in this study. For a detailed explanation of the telecommunications policy see OECD Telecommunication and Broadcasting Review of Mexico 2017, 31 August 2017, https://www.oecd.org/publications/oecd-telecommunication-and-broadcasting-review-of-mexico-2017-9789264278011-en.htm; see also Soria Gerardo, “Política y regulación de telecomunicaciones”, El Economista, 11 July 2018, https://www.eleconomista.com.mx/opinion/Politica-y-regulacion-de-telecomunicaciones-20180711-0009.html (accessed 24 April 2019).

  49. 49.

    Acuerdo mediante el cual se dan a conocer las Líneas Generales de la Política Espacial de México, Executive Power, Ministry of Communications and Transportation, Official Journal of the Federation, 13 July 2011, https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/73124/Lineas_Generalas_Politica_Espacial_de_Mexico.pdf.

  50. 50.

    The term “Guidelines” is used to refer to the overall instrument to distinguish them from the “guidelines”, which are the guidelines (parameters) per se.

  51. 51.

    It seems that the Guidelines use the terms “space” and “aerospace” as synonyms. For example, the terms “aerospace industries” and “space industries” or “aerospace applications” and “space applications” are used in similar contexts. The NSAP 2015 refers to the term “aerospace sector” as including both space and aeronautic sectors.

  52. 52.

    Federal Executive Power, National Development Plan 2007–2012, Mexico, 2007, http://pnd.calderon.presidencia.gob.mx/pdf/PND_2007-2012.pdf.

  53. 53.

    AEM’s official website only contains the 2011 Guidelines.

  54. 54.

    The current National Development Plan does not contain specific issues on the development of the space or telecommunications sector, see Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 2019–2024, México, Gobierno de la República, 30 April 2019, https://lopezobrador.org.mx/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/PLAN-NACIONAL-DE-DESARROLLO-2019-2024.pdf (accessed 30 May 2019).

  55. 55.

    Ministry of Communications and Transportation, Programa Nacional de Actividades Espaciales 2011–2015, Mexican Space Agency, February 2012, https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/73432/PNAE_2011-2015.pdf. It is possible that the NSAP was initially created for the period 2011–2012 and extended later to 2015 to give it continuity after the change of Administration, as suggested by the Orbit Plan Roadmap 2013 (see Sect. 12.4.2.1), p. 9.

  56. 56.

    Acuerdo por el que se expide el Programa Nacional de Actividades Espaciales, Official Journal of the Federation, 14 April 2015, https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/73432/PNAE_2011-2015.pdf.

  57. 57.

    It was proposed by AEM’s Director, approved by the AEM’s Government Board and adopted by the Ministry of Communications and Transportation.

  58. 58.

    Cf. Ministry of Communications and Transportation, 2013–2018 NSAP Results report, 2018, https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/442785/Programa_Nacional_de_Actividades_Espaciales_2013-2018.pdf.

  59. 59.

    The 2013–2018 NDP‘s national goals were: (1) Mexico in peace; (2) Mexico with an inclusive approach; (3) Mexico with quality education; (4) Prosperous Mexico, and (5) Mexico with global responsibility. For example, regarding the “Mexico with global responsibility” goal, and according to the NSAP’s objectives, AEM must become an actor with global responsibility that interacts with the space community so that it becomes one of the most important actors in the global space community. The space sector is absent in the current 2019–2024 NDP, see Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 2019–2024, Official Journal of the Federation, 12 July 2019, https://www.dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5565599&fecha=12/07/2019 (accessed 9 September 2019).

  60. 60.

    Space economy “is the segment of a country’s economy resulting from activities such as exploration, exploitation and use of the outer space. These activities, which employ objects launched and placed in space, include: scientific research; technological development; design, fabrication, manufacturing and operation of telecommunication systems; global positioning systems; and Earth and cosmos observation”, Mexican Space Agency et al., Orbit Plan: Roadmap for Mexico’s Space Industry, ProMéxico, Mexico City, October 2012, p. 13 https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/73145/PLAN_DE_ORBITA_2013_INGLES.pdf.

  61. 61.

    There are in total twelve strategies and 36 action lines. In addition, the NSAP establishes that AEM will take the necessary actions to comply with three cross strategies of the NDP: the Program for a Close and Modern Government; the Program to Democratize Productivity; and the National Program for Equal Opportunities and Non Discrimination against Women (PROIGUALDAD – Programa Nacional para la Igualdad de Oportunidades y No Discriminación contra las Mujeres).

  62. 62.

    Consulta de la Política Satelital Mexicana, Mexican Space Agency, https://www.gob.mx/participa/consultas/politica-satelital-mexicana (accessed 18 April 2019).

  63. 63.

    It also received feedback from several public institutions and space actors, as well as advice from Euroconsult, a world leader satellite consulting company. Acuerdo que establece la política en material satelital del Gobierno Federal, Ministry of Communications and Transportation, Official Journal of the Federation, 5 May 2018, http://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5522574&fecha=15/05/2018.

  64. 64.

    Ibid.

  65. 65.

    One of the most relevant measures of the 2013 Telecommunications Reform was the opening of direct foreign investment up to 100% in satellite communications, Acuerdo que establece la política en material satelital del Gobierno Federal, Ministry of Communications and Transportation, Official Journal of the Federation, 5 May 2018, http://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5522574&fecha=15/05/2018.

  66. 66.

    Mexican Space Agency et al., Orbit Plan: Roadmap for Mexico’s Space Industry, ProMéxico, Mexico City, October 2012, https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/73145/PLAN_DE_ORBITA_2013_INGLES.pdf.

  67. 67.

    ProMéxico is the federal government agency responsible for coordinating strategies aimed at strengthening Mexico’s participation in the international economy by supporting the export process and the internationalization of companies established in the country and coordinating actions to attract foreign investment.

  68. 68.

    A strategic milestone is a goal or objective based on the prospective analysis of trends. For a milestone to be considered strategic, it must be SMART, this is Specific, Measurable, Aggressive but attainable, Relevant and Time framed. Each milestone had several projects and specific completion dates. There were 27 projects in total.

  69. 69.

    Rivera Parga, José, op. cit., p. 8.

  70. 70.

    The Orbit Plan itself envisaged this possibility when stating that “Due to its strategic nature, the orbit plan is a living document that requires frequent feedback and updating. It also demands flexibility to adapt to the major changes in the space market”, p. 61.

  71. 71.

    Orbit Plan: 2.0: Roadmap for Mexico’s Space Industry, ProMéxico, Mexico City, 2017, https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/414932/Plan_Orbita_2.0.pdf.

  72. 72.

    The SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis shows the Mexican space industry’s current situation compared to the rest of the world and identifies areas that must be leveraged or improved to consolidate a world-class space sector, Ibid., p. 63.

  73. 73.

    Ley Orgánica de la Administración Pública Federal, Official Journal of the Federation, 29 December 1976.

  74. 74.

    Ley Federal de Telecomunicaciones y Radiodifusión, Official Journal of the Federation, 14 July 2014. http://www.ift.org.mx/sites/default/files/contenidogeneral/asuntos-internacionales/federaltelecommunicationsandbroadcastinglawmexico.pdf.

  75. 75.

    See Sect. 12.6.

  76. 76.

    67th IAC, International Astronautical Federation, 2016 http://www.iafastro.org/events/iac/iac2016/ (accessed 7 April 2019).

  77. 77.

    Semana Mundial del Espacio’18 México, https://haciaelespacio.aem.gob.mx/sme-mexico/2018/ (accessed 25 May 2019).

  78. 78.

    “Mexico, third place in science dissemination and technology worldwide”, Notimex, 1 March 2019, http://www.notimex.gob.mx/ntxnotaLibre/671333/mexico-third-place-in-science-dissemination-and-technology-worldwide.

  79. 79.

    Ley Federal de Telecomunicaciones y Radiodifusión, Official Journal of the Federation, 14 July 2014.

  80. 80.

    Organic Statute of Mexico’s Telecommunications, Official Journal of the Federation, 14 February 14 2018, http://www.telecomm.gob.mx/gobmx/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Estatuto%20Org%C3%A1nico%20de%20Telecomm%20(14%20DE%20FEBRERO%20DE%202018).pdf.

  81. 81.

    Secretaria de la Defensa Nacional (SEDENA); Secretaría de Marina (SEMAR); Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (SEMARNAT); Secretaría de Gobernación (SEGOB); Secretaría de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural (SADER); Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad (CONABIO); Comisión Nacional Forestal (CONAFOR); Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX); Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). See Orbit Plan 2.0, p. 32.

  82. 82.

    Ley que crea la Agencia Espacial Mexicana, Official Journal of the Federation, 30 July 2010, https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/73063/Ley_que_crea_la_AgenciaEspacialMexicana.pdf (accessed 21 May 2019).

  83. 83.

    Acuerdo No 4/II/ORD./11.04.12/S adopting the Organic Statute of the Mexican Space Agency (last reform on 10 April 2015), https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/73035/Estatuto_Organico_AEM.pdf.

  84. 84.

    Publican la primera Norma mexicana para impulsar sector industrial de satélites miniaturizados, Mexican Space Agency, 26 August 2018, https://www.gob.mx/aem/prensa/publican-la-primera-norma-mexicana-para-impulsar-sector-industrial-de-satelites-miniaturizados-172274; see also Declaratoria de vigencia de la Norma Mexicana NMX-AE-001-SCFI-2018, Official Journal of the Federation, Ministry of the Interior, 22 August 2018, http://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5535554&fecha=22/08/2018 (accessed 10 December 2019).

  85. 85.

    Ley Federal de Telecomunicaciones y Radiodifusión, Cámara de Diputados del Congreso de la Unión, 14 July 2014, http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LFTR_140219.pdf (accessed 7 April 2019).

  86. 86.

    At 1 April 2018, only 14 states have ratified the five Space Treaties: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Chile, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Mexico, Morocco, the Netherlands, Pakistan, Peru, Turkey and Uruguay. COPUOS, Status of International Agreements relating to activities in outer space at a 1 January 2018, A/AC.105/C.2/2018/CRP.3, 9 April 2018 http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/spacelaw/treatystatus/AC105_C2_2018_CRP03E.pdf.

  87. 87.

    Ibid.

  88. 88.

    Nota verbal de fecha 31 de octubre de 2013 dirigida al Secretario General por la Misión Permanente de México ante las Naciones Unidas (Viena), COPUOS, ST/SG/SER.E/INF/28, 11 December 2013, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/reports/regdocs/SERE_INF_028S.pdf.

  89. 89.

    AEM Act, article 4, para. XIII.

  90. 90.

    Mexican launched space objects Registry, 2018, https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/354275/RegistrodeObjetos__2018.pdf (accessed 6 February 2019).

  91. 91.

    Compendium of space debris mitigation standards adopted by States and international organizations, Mexico, UNCOPUOS A/AC.105/C.2/2014/CRP.15, 18 March 2014, p. 31, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/limited/c2/AC105_C2_2014_CRP15E.pdf (accessed 26 April 2019).

  92. 92.

    AEM y SpaceSUR firman Memorando de Entendimiento, SpaceSUR, https://www.spacesur.com/2018/11/28/aem-y-spacesur-firman-memorando-de-entendimiento/ (accessed 27 May 2019).

  93. 93.

    Since its creation, CEA has dealt different subjects such as space technology, environment, long distance education, disasters management, and space legislation. To date, CEA has met seven times and adopted the equal number of declarations: I San José, Costa Rica, 1990; II Santiago, Chile, 1993; III Punta del Este, Uruguay, 1996; IV Cartagena de Indias, Colombia, 2002; V, Quito, Ecuador, 2006; VI Pachuca, México, 2010; VII Managua, Nicaragua, 2015, and VIII, Caracas, Venezuela, 2017, in Mexican Space Agency, Conferencia Espacial de las Américas, 22 March 2016, https://www.gob.mx/aem/acciones-y-programas/conferencia-espacial-de-las-americas-cea.

  94. 94.

    Leonardi, Ivan, “Brasil propone una alianza Latinoamericana de agencias espaciales”, MundoGeo, 11 November 2013, https://mundogeo.com/es/blog/2013/11/11/brasil-propone-una-alianza-latinoamericana-de-agencias-espaciales/.

  95. 95.

    United Nations, “Informe del Simposio de las Naciones Unidas y México sobre Tecnología Espacial Básica: Logro de una tecnología espacial accesible y asequible”, UNCOPUOS, A/AC.105/1086, 23 December 2014, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/reports/ac105/AC105_1086S.pdf.

  96. 96.

    Argentina y México van por un NASA “latinoamericano”, El Economista, 30 September 2016 (accessed 3 April 2019), https://www.eleconomista.com.mx/arteseideas/Argentina-y-Mexico-van-por-un-NASA-latinoamericano-20160930-0044.html.

  97. 97.

    Zazueta Oliver, “Idean agencia espacial de Latinoamérica”, Reforma, 29 September 2016 (accessed 3 April 2019). https://www.reforma.com/aplicacioneslibre/articulo/default.aspx?id=950894&md5=15a50a7ce2dcddd0547f60b0c16c5806&ta=0dfdbac11765226904c16cb9ad1b2efe.

  98. 98.

    “Expertos coinciden en necesidad de Latinoamérica de impulsar alianza espacial”, EFE, Montevideo, 21 May 2018, (accessed 3 April 2019), https://www.efe.com/efe/america/tecnologia/expertos-coinciden-en-necesidad-de-latinoamerica-impulsar-alianza-espacial/20000036-3623068.

  99. 99.

    The Colombian researcher Camilo Guzmán considers that the regional space agency would reduce the costs of space technologies to the benefit of sustainable development by preventing disasters and deforestation, avoiding epidemics, and strengthening telemedicine, in “América Latina necesita cooperación especial para desarrollo regional”, Mexican Space Agency, 67th IAC, Guadalajara, 23 September 2016 https://www.aem.gob.mx/iac2016-NOTIMEX/notas/243962.html (accessed 3 April 2019).

  100. 100.

    In the preliminary programme of the IV International ReLaCa-Espacio Meeting held on 24 May 2019 in Asuncion, Paraguay, a lecture by a representative of the Mexican Space Agency on the “Pillars for the Global Governance on Outer Space Activities in the XXI century” was scheduled. However, this participation was removed in the final programme, see Preliminary Programme, IV Encuentro International de la Red Latinoamericana y del Caribe del Espacio, Asuncion, Paraguay, 24 May 2019, http://www.aepdiri.org/images/2019/archivos/Programa_24_mayo_2019_Asuncion.pdf (accessed 26 May 2019).

  101. 101.

    Mexican Space Agency, “Exhorta AEM a cooperación especial en región Latinoamericana y del Caribe”, 14 November 2018, https://www.gob.mx/aem/prensa/exhorta-aem-a-cooperacion-espacial-en-region-latinoamericana-y-del-caribe-182081.

  102. 102.

    Grajeda, Genaro, “1er Congreso Latinoamericano de Ciencia y Tecnología Aeroespacial”, Reconoce Mx, http://www.reconoce.mx/1er-congreso-latinoamericano-de-ciencia-y-tecnologia-aeroespacial/ (accessed 7 April 2019).

  103. 103.

    “Avances en cooperación espacial entre México y Francia”, Latam Satelital, 22 March 2016, http://latamsatelital.com/avances-en-cooperacion-espacial-entre-mexico-y-francia/ (accessed 7 April 2019).

  104. 104.

    See “Resultados de la modernización del acuerdo comercial entre México, Estados Unidos y Canadá”, Mexican Government, 1 October 1018, https://www.gob.mx/tlcan/acciones-y-programas/resultados-de-la-modernizacion-del-acuerdo-comercial-entre-mexico-estados-unidos-y-canada?state=published (accessed 24 April 2019).

  105. 105.

    “Lanzarán nanosatélite mexicano “Aztechsat-1” desde Estación Espacial Internacional, en 2019”, Mexican Space Agency, 25 February 2019, https://www.gob.mx/aem/prensa/lanzaran-nanosatelite-mexicano-aztechsat-1-desde-estacion-espacial-internacional-en-2019-148785?idiom=es (accessed 7 April 2019); see also Kulu Erik, “AzTechSat-1”, Nanosats Database, 2019, https://www.nanosats.eu/sat/aztechsat-1 (accessed 19 April 2019).

  106. 106.

    “Publica AEM Convocatoria para Estancias de Investigación en NASA”, Mexican Space Agency, 21 February 2019, https://www.gob.mx/aem/prensa/publica-aem-convocatoria-para-estancias-de-investigacion-en-nasa-191611?fbclid=IwAR3BLxydRgYayBqm-AaGKmoJNtwq86mi7WSv3rHbFpw0I79EcwXKzcxlGz4 (accessed 7 April 2019).

  107. 107.

    The Ministry of Communications and Transportation keeps the record of these instruments. See http://www.sct.gob.mx/informacion-general/normatividad/telecomunicaciones/tratados-y-acuerdos-Internacionales.

  108. 108.

    It has also been considered the possibility to make joint launches of nanosatellites from the Kibo laboratory of the ISS, “Esquema de cooperación AEM-JAXA, diversifica y enriquece transferencia de conocimientos”, Mexican Space Agency, 20 February 2016, https://www.gob.mx/aem/prensa/esquema-de-cooperacion-aem-jaxa-diversifica-y-enriquece-transferencia-de-conocimientos-20548 (accessed 7 April 2019).

  109. 109.

    Anuncian colaboración espacial México y Nueva Zelanda, Mexican Space Agency, 3 August 2019, https://www.gob.mx/aem/prensa/anuncian-colaboracion-espacial-mexico-y-nueva-zelanda-211751 (accessed 9 September 2019).

  110. 110.

    Invitan a AEM a ser miembro permanente de la APSCO, Mexican Space Agency, 10 May 2019, https://www.gob.mx/aem/prensa/invitan-a-aem-a-ser-miembro-permanente-de-la-apsco-199663 (accessed 27 May 2019).

  111. 111.

    “Mexico participates in international space forum in Beijing”, El Universal, 12 December 2018 https://www.eluniversal.com.mx/english/mexico-participates-international-space-forum-beijing (accessed 3 April 2019).

  112. 112.

    “Se integra México a actividades de cooperación internacional Asia-Pacífico en materia especial”, Mexican Space Agency, 27 July 2015 https://www.gob.mx/aem/prensa/se-integra-mexico-a-actividades-de-cooperacion-internacional-asia-pacifico-en-materia-espacial-19686 (accessed 3 April 2019).

  113. 113.

    CRECTEALC, INAOE, http://crectealc.inaoep.mx:8080/CREC/ See Sect. 12.6.4.2.

  114. 114.

    UNCOPUOS, Regional centres for space science and technology education (affiliated to the United Nations), UNGA A/AC.105/782, 14 March 2002.

  115. 115.

    “SEWS-Drought in Latin American and the Caribbean”, UN-SPIDER, Knowledge Portal, http://www.un-spider.org/projects/SEWS-D-project-caribbean. See also “AEM conducts teleconference with SEWS-D partners”, Knowledge Portal, UN-SPIDER, 13 October 2016, http://www.un-spider.org/news-and-events/news/aem-conducts-teleconference-sews-d-partners (accessed 26 April 2019).

  116. 116.

    Mexico Regional Support Office, Knowledge Portal, UN-SPIDER, http://www.un-spider.org/network/regional-support-offices/mexico-regional-support-office (accessed 26 April 2019).

  117. 117.

    “Mexico-Regional Training course”, Knowledge Portal, UN-SPIDER, October 2011, http://www.un-spider.org/advisory-support/training-activities/mexico-regional-training-course (accessed 26 April 2019).

  118. 118.

    “UN-SPIDER visits Mexico Campus of the Regional Centre for Space Science Technology Education for Latin America and the Caribbean”, Knowledge Portal, UN-SPIDER, 18 July 2017, http://www.un-spider.org/news-and-events/news/un-spider-visits-mexico-campus-regional-centre-space-science-technology (accessed 26 April 2019).

  119. 119.

    Question of the peaceful use of outer space, UNGA RES 1348 (XIII), 13 December 1958, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_13_1348E.pdf.

  120. 120.

    Mexico, Online Index of Objects Launched into Outer Space http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/osoindex/search-ng.jspx?lf_id=#?c=%7B%22filters%22:%5B%7B%22fieldName%22:%22en%23object.launch.stateOrganization_s%22,%22value%22:%22Mexico%22%7D%5D,%22sortings%22:%5B%7B%22fieldName%22:%22object.launch.dateOfLaunch_s1%22,%22dir%22:%22desc%22%7D%5D%7D (accessed 13 April 2019).

  121. 121.

    “Información proporcionada de conformidad con el Convenio sobre el registro de objetos lanzados al espacio ultraterrestre”, UNCOPUOS, ST/SG/SER.E/INF/28, 11 December 2013, http://www.unoosa.org/pdf/reports/regdocs/SERE_INF_028S.pdf (accessed 19 April 2019). See Sect. 12.5.2.2.

  122. 122.

    See for example Mexico’s answers to the UNOOSA’s survey “Questions on suborbital flights for scientific missions and/or for human transportation”, A/AC.105/1039/Add.11, 28 March 2018, available at http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/oosadoc/data/documents/2018/aac.105/aac.1051039add.11_0.html (accessed 24 April 2019).

  123. 123.

    For a complete list of agreements see https://www.itu.int/online/mm/scripts/gensel26?ctryid=1000100411.

  124. 124.

    Acuerdo que establece la política en material satelital del Gobierno Federal, Ministry of Communications and Transportation, Official Journal of the Federation, 5 May 2018, http://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5522574&fecha=15/05/2018.

  125. 125.

    Ibid.

  126. 126.

    Ibid.

  127. 127.

    “Recursos orbitales geoestacionarios y no geoestacionarios”, Espectro Radioeléctrico, Federal Telecommunications Institute, http://www.ift.org.mx/espectro-radioelectrico/recursos-orbitales/en-mexico (accessed 19 April 2019).

  128. 128.

    Acuerdo que establece la política en material satelital del Gobierno Federal, Ministry of Communications and Transportation, Official Journal of the Federation, 5 May 2018, http://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5522574&fecha=15/05/2018.

  129. 129.

    Ibid.

  130. 130.

    The Institute has its own Public Concessions Registry that is available at http://ucsweb.ift.org.mx/vrpc/.

  131. 131.

    To know the concessions procedure before the creation of the Federal Telecommunications Institute see “Regulación satelital en México: studio y acciones”, Federal Telecommunications Commission, June 2013, http://www.ift.org.mx/sites/default/files/contenidogeneral/espectro-radioelectrico/regulacionsatelitalenmexicoestudioyacciones19-06-2013-final.pdf (accessed 19 April 2019).

  132. 132.

    See Sect. 12.2.

  133. 133.

    That does not mean that Mexico will not continue to request launches to third States to place its satellites in orbit, at least in the short term. Project 2.2 of the Orbit Plan 2.0 related to the policy and bases of planning and coordination to guarantee the management of orbits and the associated radio spectrum takes into account some aspects related to the future management process of a launcher and the possible legal implications of launch contracts.

  134. 134.

    Projects 3.2, 3.3, 4.3 and 4.4, respectively.

  135. 135.

    See Tecnología Espacial en México, ¿solo cohetes? 1ª Parte, Hacia el Espacio, Mexican Space Agency, 1 January 2015, https://haciaelespacio.aem.gob.mx/revistadigital/articul.php?interior=176 (accessed 3 June 2019).

  136. 136.

    Programa Espacial Universitario de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, http://peu.unam.mx/ (accessed 10 September 2019).

  137. 137.

    “Mexicanos en el Exterior forman el clúster Espacial de la Red Global mx”, Mexican Space Agency, 13 September 2018, https://www.gob.mx/aem/prensa/mexicanos-en-el-exterior-forman-el-cluster-espacial-de-la-red-global-mx-174433?idiom=es (accessed 17 April 2019).

  138. 138.

    Blanco Martha, “E. Carrera (Clúster): “Hay que ver el espacio como la vía de desarrollo de México”, Infoespacial.com, 25 March 2019 http://www.infoespacial.com/latam/2019/03/25/noticia-carrera-cluster-espacio-desarrollo-mexico.html (accessed 17 April 2019).

  139. 139.

    Space Education portal, Mexican Space Agency, April 2019, and Duarte Muñoz, Carlos et al., AEM 2S-322-01 Human Capital Offer Analysis Project, Mexican Space Agency, 2015, pp. 27–47, http://www.educacionespacial.aem.gob.mx/images/normateca/pdf/20160606_Demanda_en_la_triple_helice_DIS%20REV%20BRT.pdf.

  140. 140.

    Art. 4, AEM’s Act.

  141. 141.

    Mexican Space Agency, Educación Espacial portal, https://www.educacionespacial.aem.gob.mx/index.html#.

  142. 142.

    Available at https://haciaelespacio.aem.gob.mx/revistadigital/.

  143. 143.

    Centro de Investigación, Innovación y Desarrollo en Telecomunicaciones.

  144. 144.

    Research and Development Areas, CIDTE’s website, http://cidte.uaz.edu.mx/web/index.php/investigacion-y-desarrollo/areas-de-desarrollo/ (accessed 5 April, 2019).

  145. 145.

    “Visita Subsecretaría de SCT obra del primer Centro de Telecomunicaciones Espaciales del país, en Zacatecas”, Mexican Space Agency, 27 January 2019 https://www.gob.mx/aem/articulos/visita-subsecretaria-de-sct-obra-del-primer-centro-de-telecomunicaciones-espaciales-del-pais-en-zacatecas-189197?idiom=es (accessed 7 April 2019).

  146. 146.

    Space Generation Advisory Council, National Points of Contact, Mexico, accessed 29 March 2019, https://spacegeneration.org/regions/north-central-america/mexico (accessed 5 April 2019).

  147. 147.

    In December 2018, SGAC elected Tania Robles, a Mexican Mechanical Engineering student, as the next Regional Coordinator in North, Central America and Caribbean, which was recognized with the Space Generation Leadership Award the same year, https://spacegeneration.org/regions/north-central-america (accessed 5 April 2019).

  148. 148.

    See Young Space Activities in Mexico, Space Generation Advisory Council, https://spacegeneration.org/regions/north-central-america/mexico (accessed 5 April 2019).

  149. 149.

    A list of Astronomy groups in Mexico is available at Grupos de Astronomía en México, Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica en México, https://www.inaoep.mx/~astrofi/astromex.html (accessed 28 May 2019).

  150. 150.

    Domínguez, Salma, Continúa Semana Mundial del Espacio con 301 sedes en México, A21, 8 October 2018, https://a21.com.mx/aeroespacial/2018/10/08/continua-semana-mundial-del-espacio-con-301-sedes-en-mexico (accessed 28 May 2019). See also Semana Mundial del Espacio’18 México, Mexican Space Agency, https://haciaelespacio.aem.gob.mx/sme-mexico/2018/index.php#queEs.

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Appendix

Appendix

See Table 12.14.

Table 12.14 Institutional contact information in Mexico (2019)

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Froehlich, A., Amante Soria, D.A., De Marchi, E. (2020). Mexico. In: Space Supporting Latin America. Studies in Space Policy, vol 25. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38520-0_12

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