Abstract
There are lessons learned from history which gained global relevance. Growing settlements need centralized W+S systems with standardized service provision organized by professionals. However, because of specific challenges in low-income countries, these lessons learned and academic knowledge have to be blended in with local knowledge. Though modern medicine can help people to fight diseases, the health sector cannot substitute W+S infrastructure nor can it make rural W+S solutions appropriate for towns. The global and national monitoring systems produce very different signals. The desperate situation in many countries contradict the positive messages from JMP which make some donors pull out of the sector despite its deterioration. This aggravates the chronic investment gap. W+S is also mis-used by politicians and the service vacuum left by utilities in urban low-income areas attracts many narrow minded and unqualified actors without them being called to order. Centralized systems help to substantially reduce gender inequalities in urban W+S. However, the discussions show how little is known about mitigating them. Equally, the existing multi-dimensional poverty indexes can hardly capture the brutality which comes with (water) poverty in towns. The contribution of W+S to lift and keep people out of poverty is not recognised sufficiently compared to health and education.
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Notes
- 1.
Centralized water and sanitation systems means systems which are in technical and managerial terms centralized with raw water from intakes or boreholes, treatment plants, storage facilities and distribution networks managed by a utility with well-trained professionals.
- 2.
The development of large water supply systems in Roman times was not limited to the city of Rome – Exner 2015, stating the case of the Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (Eifelwasserleitung to Köln).
- 3.
Kramer (1997: 23–24).
- 4.
http://davidgalbraith.org/trivia/graph-of-the-population-of-rome-through-history/2189/ (last visited 06.2017).
- 5.
Vuorinen et al. (2007: 51).
- 6.
http://www.historyhome.co.uk/peel/p-health/sanrep.htm, (last visited 08.2015).
- 7.
Bohman (2010: 4–10).
- 8.
Filtration for drinking water production was made mandatory by the Prussian government in 1859, which prevented the massive cholera outbreaks in Altona (Hamburg) which emerged on the other side of the administrative boarder in (Hanseatic) Hamburg. http://mulewf.rlp.de/fileadmin/mufv/img/inhalte/wasser/ressortforum/01a_Prof__Dr__Martin_Exner__Teil_1_.pdf, (last visited 08.2015).
- 9.
The proposal by Robert Koch in 1893 to install water filtration led to a drop in the children mortality rate per 100 live births in Hamburg from 1881 to 1927 to around 2% in 1893 (before 1892 it stood at 4%, during the cholera epidemic in Hamburg). Martin Exner, University of Bonn, explains: ‘The general lesson which still holds today is that passive health protection is the best way to improve population health’ (presentation at the GIZ MATA 2015).
- 10.
E.g. springs and open and drilled wells in the urban setting, referred to in this work as single (traditional) water points or single water sources, are often contaminated in densely populated areas, but counted as ‘improved’ access by the global monitoring. In addition, global monitoring does not make a difference between formalised or uncontrolled (informal) service provision.
- 11.
Centralized water and sanitation systems means systems which are in technical and managerial terms centralized with intakes, treatment plants, storage facilities and distribution networks managed by a utility with well-trained professionals.
- 12.
E.g. Germany, with water connection at 100% in urban and 99% in rural areas and improved sanitation at 100% in urban and rural areas (JMP report 2014). Bain et al. (2014a, b: 922, Table 2) indicated that access to piped water in premises in urban Europe (High Income – HI) is 99.5% and in rural Europe (HI) 98.8%. For the Americas the respective figures are 97.3% and 98.8%.
- 13.
Schulz and Schulz 1977: 1577–178; E.g. around the lakes in Carinthia, Austria in the 1960s where tourism in the summer was threatened because algae developed in the lakes due to the discharge of untreated effluents. http://www.zobodat.at/pdf/CAR_167_87_0157-0178.pdf (last visited 05.2016).
- 14.
Kuks and Kissling (2004: 30).
- 15.
In this book the following expressions for sanitation are used: A sewer system is a centralized piped system where customers connect their sanitation facilities. Sewerage means a system consisting of a full centralized sanitation chain which includes, in the case of off-side sanitation, inlets for customers, pipes to transport the waste (including elements such as pumping stations, man holes, etc.) to the treatment facilities and a controlled disposal of the remaining sludge. In the case of household sanitation facilities which are not connected to a piped system (called onsite sanitation) sewerage includes a decentralized sanitation chain which ensures collection and transport of the human waste by other means than pipes (trucks, hand pulled carts, an intermediate storage if needed, the deposit at treatment facilities) and a controlled disposal of the remaining sludge. Sewage is the human waste often mixed with effluent.
- 16.
Kramer (1997: 37).
- 17.
A designation in Kenya for defecation in a plastic bag, which is then thrown onto roofs or into yards of households or public ground.
- 18.
WSP Programme (World Bank Group) on the Economic impact of poor sanitation in Africa 2012. Infrastructure in this paper means ‘hardware’ such as treatment plants, pipe network, etc.
- 19.
Spears et al. (2013: 29).
- 20.
‘A natural monopoly is a distinct type of monopoly that may arise when there are extremely high fixed costs of distribution, such as exist when large-scale infrastructure is required to ensure supply. Examples of infrastructure include cables and grids for electricity supply, pipelines for gas and water supply, and networks for rail and underground. These costs are also sunk costs and they deter entry and exit. It may be more efficient to allow only one firm to supply to the market because allowing competition would mean a wasteful duplication of resources.’ http://www.economicsonline.co.uk/Business_economics/Natural_monopolies.html (last visited 05.2017).
- 21.
According to Europe-economics (2003: 33) ‘If an increase in output leads to a reduction in input per unit of outputs, productivity is increased through economies of scale’ and ‘Economies of scale are found in many sectors of the economy, but particularly so in network infrastructure companies such as the regulated utilities.’
- 22.
Nickson and Franceys (2003: 4).
- 23.
The WHO indicates that for drinking and cooking 7–9lt/c/d of water is acceptable. When adding the water needed for hygiene, a water quantity of 20lt/c/d minimum is accepted as appropriate according to Howard and Bartram (2003: 22).
- 24.
Nickson and Franceys (2003: 5).
- 25.
Pollem (2008: 46–56).
- 26.
Baldwin et al. (2012: 23).
- 27.
United Nations, adoption of General Assembly, A/C.3/70/L.55/Rev.1, 18.11.2015.
- 28.
Van den Berg (1997: 1).
- 29.
In Kenya until recently. Devolution of water and sanitation service provision to the counties made the asset holders and developers obsolete (Water Services Boards).
- 30.
Stern et al. (2008).
- 31.
As is sometimes the case with the WSBs in Kenya (own observations).
- 32.
Nickson and Franceys (2003: 4).
- 33.
For instance, water is free of charge for domestic water use in Turkmenistan and was in Ireland until 2013. Ireland has in the meantime moved to metered water consumption and to billing (Environment, Community and Local Government Paper of Ireland, 2012).
- 34.
Nickson and Franceys (2003: 3–5).
- 35.
White C. in Global Water Forum, page 1–7, http://www.globalwaterforum.org/2015/04/27/understanding-water-markets-public-vs-private-goods/?pdf=12237 (last visited 04.2017).
- 36.
Around 20Â l per capita per day.
- 37.
1992: Principle 4 of the Statement on Water and the Environment (ICWE) in Dublin, Ireland, January 1992, proposed to the assemble at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, https://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/hwrp/documents/english/icwedece.html – (last visited 04.2015).
- 38.
55th UN plenary meeting 10 November 1980, 35/18. Proclamation of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/35/18 (last visited 012016).
- 39.
Schiffler (2015).
- 40.
Schiffler (2015: 4–6) briefly explains the many types of private sector participation. The present work refers to private sector participation and not privatisation in Sub-Saharan Africa with the sale of public assets. The term private sector participation is used in the sense that the utility management is taken over partially or with full control in various forms of contracts (from management to concession) by foreign companies (generally multinationals).
- 41.
But also other donors such as the French Cooperation (own observation in Burkina Faso during the 1990s). It should also be mentioned that many French multi nationals received contracts during these times combined with financing of the WB for asset development.
- 42.
Newbery (2004: 2, 4, 6, 26).
- 43.
Oelmann (2005: 40–48).
- 44.
Megginson et al. (2001: 1, 2, 20).
- 45.
Schiffler (2015: 1) ‘About 90% of water and sanitation utilities in the world are publicly owned and managed.’
- 46.
Newbery (2004: 26).
- 47.
Schiffler (2015: 4).
- 48.
In 7Â years in Tanzania, a financing basket channelled around 650 million USD into the urban water and sanitation sector without reversing the negative trend in access.
- 49.
A decreasing subsidy fee was paid by the WB to the multi-national private operator for each cubic meter sold (Own observation, Guiney Conakry 1998).
- 50.
Jomo (2016: 15, 16, 22).
- 51.
The expression socially responsible commercialization means that a utility is thriving for cost recovery and at the same time is under regulations in order to protect the consumers and the needs of the poor.
- 52.
NWASCO annual report (2005: 11) and own experience, see also Sect. 4.3.
- 53.
Europe-Economics (2003: 27, 28).
- 54.
E.g. the establishments of water trusts in Lusaka promoted by Jica and an international NGO which reached an impressive size serving up to 50.000 people.
- 55.
Schiffler (2015: 179).
- 56.
Megginson and Netter (2001: 324, 329, 337).
- 57.
Ravallion et al. in Backer (2008: 8, 21).
- 58.
Over 7,000 sub-locations in Kenya (KNBS – Kenyan National Bureau of Statistics).
- 59.
The sub-location Kizigitini, labelled rural by the 2009 census, has a density of 5,095 people per km2 compared to urban-labelled sub-locations in the heart of Nairobi town such as Kileleshwa (3,210), Embakasi (1,444) and Mwiki (2,084).
- 60.
There are also other definitions of urban areas influenced by politicians such as the one in Zambia in the 1990s where urban was defined by the office for statistics as areas where basic services are supplied such as water, electricity, etc. This led to the phenomena that the population in the rural areas were growing faster (on paper) than the urban as many LIAs in towns missing basic services were consequently classified as rural. Hence, the more rapid development (on paper) of rural than urban population in Zambia according to statistics was contrary to the development in all other countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, where urbanization progressed.
- 61.
In 2014, WASREB, the regulator in Kenya started to define the service areas of the utilities regardless of administrative borders but according to population density. This exercise is based on the Service Provision Agreements signed by the WSBs and the utilities in their area of responsibility at the start of the implementation of the water sector reform in 2005, which also often went beyond town boundaries. Therefore, the population in the service areas of the utilities reported by WASREB is significantly higher than the urban population reported by the census (own experience 2014). The census 2009, Kenya National Bureau of Statistics, 2009 Kenya Population and Housing Census, Volume 1A (2010: 194–197) indicates a core urban population of 7,579,820 and peri-urban population of 6,108,607, which is a total of 13,688,427 people compared to the indication of the WASREB Impact report 2008/9 with a population in the service areas of utilities of 17,320,031).
- 62.
National census data for 2009 (urban 7,6 million and peri-urban 6.1 million) also estimated 3.9% growth rate in urban and peri-urban.
- 63.
Wasreb Report No. 6, http://www.wasreb.go.ke/impact-reports (last visited 03.2015).
- 64.
Penrose et al. (2010: 6).
- 65.
- 66.
Esrey et al. (1991: 617).
- 67.
Clasen et al. (2014: 649, 650).
- 68.
E.g. northern Uganda (own experience in 2018).
- 69.
Werchota (2013: 7).
- 70.
Peloso (2014: 121–139), in this case, urban LIAs in Ghana.
- 71.
Kolker et al. (2016:3). ‘While water ODA grew by 90% during this period [from 1995 to 2014] overall ODA increased by more than 230%.’ Furthermore, ‘The water sector has historically attracted smaller amounts of ODA than other [social] sectors, including education health, population planning, and governance and civil society.’
- 72.
In Kenya for instance, the government investments in urban water and sanitation was in 2012/13 around 2% of the national budget (against the recommended 5% by AMCOW) whereby the contribution by the state from this 2% of the national budget represented only 4% of the total investments in the sector (around 95% were provided by the donor community). The average over 8Â years was even lower than in 2012/13 (Annual Water Sector Review 2013/14, MEWNR March 2015, and 2013/2014 Estimates of Development Expenditure of the Government of Kenya, June 2013). Also, refer to Sect. 4.6.
- 73.
E.g. the Vison 2040 from Uganda, signed by the President of the state, does not provide a single paragraph for water and sanitation development although recognizing that over 70% of diseases are water and sanitation related, that 86% of household use a simple pit latrine and that 82% of toilets have no hand washing facilities. In addition, the need to build piped water and sanitation systems are briefly mentioned in one of the 15 paragraphs under the chapter water resources. Under the chapter improvement of the quality of the population, water and sanitation is mentioned as the last point after health, nutrition, literacy, numeracy and housing. (https://www.jlos.go.ug:442/index.php/document-centre/government-of-uganda-planning-strategies/274-uganda-vision-2040/file (last visited 06.2016).
- 74.
The 2014 Africa Water and Sanitation Sector Report, African Union, Annual Report, (2015: 12).
- 75.
General Comment of UN Committee on Economics, Social and Cultural Right regarding the right to water in January 2003.
- 76.
E.g. German Cooperation closing down water programs (South Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Palestine, etc.) and establishing components of water development under governance, agriculture, etc. (Jordan, South Africa, Somalia) – own observation 2017 and 2018.
- 77.
Particularly WHO and Unicef as host of the MDG/SDG for water and sanitation monitoring with the JMP. Both work mainly with the health structure in the developing world and not with the line ministries responsible for infrastructure development of water and sanitation.
- 78.
Vison 2030 of the Government of Kenya (Chap. 5: 86) for instance. Water and sanitation is not part of chapter 3, ‘foundation for national transformation’, which concentrates on infrastructure development such as roads, railways, maritime/water ways, air, energy, etc.
- 79.
‘The right to water is clearly part of international human rights law. In 1977, the international community recognized the right to have access to drinking water in the Mar del Plata Declaration. Other international treaties and declarations have recognized the right to water. In 2002, the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights released a General Comment on the Right to Water that clearly stated the basis for the right to water in international human rights law. The Committee has also consistently treated access to water as part of other human rights, such as the rights to health and housing.’ The United Nations Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights released a General Comment on the Right to Water in January 2003,file:///F:/1%20Diss%205%202016/1%20DISS%20writing/1%20Writing/10%20Literatur%20allgemein/Human%20rights/right%20to%20water.pdf (last visited 05.2016).
- 80.
- 81.
E.g., in Kenya, two ministers where admitted to hospital being affected by a reported cholera outbreak after attending a meeting at the Kenyatta International Conventional Centre in 2017, the Star and the Nation newspaper reported on July 14, 2017.
- 82.
Koch (1893: 201).
- 83.
‘Aber wer soll die Überwachung übernehmen? Nur der Staat kann es tun. Er kann es nicht nur, sondern er muss es übernehmen; es ist seine Pflicht. Was wird nicht schon alles überwacht und revidiert? Apotheken, Krankenanstalten, Dampfkessel, Fabriken mit ihren Arbeitsschutzvorkehrungen usw. stehen unter staatlicher Aufsicht, um zu verhüten, dass einzelne Menschen durch Ungeschicklichkeit und Fahrlässigkeit zu Schaden kommen. Bei einem Wasserwerk handelt es sich aber, wenn ein Unglück passiert, nicht um einzelne Menschen, sondern um die Gesundheit und Leben von Tausenden. Es ist höchste Zeit, dass man die zuwartende Haltung aufgibt und sich zu energischem Eingreifen entschließt.‘ (1893: 201).
- 84.
Jubilee manifest of the Kenyan coalition in ‘The shared Manifesto of the Coalition between the National Alliance (TNA), the United Republican Party (URP), the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) and the Republican Congress Party (RC)’ (2012: 31), ‘Guarantee free water supplies to all those living in informal settlements pending slum upgrading.’
- 85.
Refer also to Rouse (2013: 26) ‘water services cannot be free’.
- 86.
Dissertation from Werchota (2017).
- 87.
Nickson and Franceys (2003: 48).
- 88.
Expert interview 2016 in Nairobi.
- 89.
E.g. Turton who raised the alarm many years before the dramatic water shortages in Cape Town, South Africa emerged in 2017/18
- 90.
The international development cooperation is considered to have been triggered with Harry S. Truman’s 1949 inaugural address, https://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/50yr_archive/inagural20jan1949.htm (last visited 06.2016).
- 91.
E.g. municipality departments for the establishment and maintenance of the chain for onsite sanitation and the provision of public toilets.
- 92.
In Kenya, when defining service areas for water service providers in 2014 the water sector regulator included settlements with 400 households per km2 in the service areas of licensed utilities. This means that with 30% of land reserved for public ground, individual plots for families of four are 1750 m2 which corresponds to the upper middle class residential areas in towns (own experience).
- 93.
E.g., the classification of improved water sources by JMP is the same for the urban and rural setting.
- 94.
Sasaki et al. (2008: 420).
- 95.
Where often sustainable water treatment is not secured with community or small scale private management.
- 96.
Mutono et al. (2015: 63).
- 97.
The Water and Environment Sector Performance Report from Uganda (2015: 104, 128) states: ‘Also, in response to a Typhoid fever outbreak in Kampala, over 700 different drinking water sources from schools, organised communities, informal settlements, suburbs and municipalities were sampled and mainly tested for bacteria of faecal origin (E.coli). Different drinking water source types, namely bottled water, locally packed water sources, boreholes, shallow wells and protected springs were sampled and assessed for compliance to the National Drinking Water Quality Standards… There were notable differences in the level of contamination of water from different water abstraction technology types. Results showed that protected springs are the most prone to contamination followed by shallow wells. Deep boreholes showed less contamination possibly due to the deep nature of the ground water aquifer as compared to the shallow aquifers for other technologies…. Open wells were replaced with stand pipe water supply and public building owners (arcades) were instructed to connect water supply to their buildings using the NWSC water supply network.’ According to Annex 17, the result of the assessment on contamination of the 631 improved single water sources are: Protected springs are contaminated to 80% (out of 474), protected shallow wells to 87% (out of 69), protected boreholes to 24% (out of 88).
- 98.
E.g. small-scale community management in parts of towns which resists later the integration of their assets into a bigger system, like observed with the Water Trusts in Lusaka.
- 99.
According to JMP’s report (2014), the coverage in the urban setting in Tanzania was in 2013 around 8% with public taps and 28% with pipes on premise leading to a total piped water of around 36%. The same source indicates that 78% are covered with improved sources, which means that around 42% depend on high risks single water sources.
- 100.
E.g. Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Uganda, and etc.
- 101.
E.g. the utility in Dar es Salaam (own experience in 2015 during an interview with top management).
- 102.
- 103.
A brief survey in Kenya by GIZ (2018) in six towns showed that when utilities closed down water kiosks in LIAs without ensuring full coverage by yard taps or household connections 5–90% of dwellers are pushed back to traditional sources, neighbourhood sales, mobile vendors and use of surface water.
- 104.
The urban population depend on controlled urban water and sanitation services because water point sources (e.g. wells) cannot be considered safe. Hence, in towns basic access means basic utility services. This is different in the rural setting where the population can in general use water points such as protected wells without great risks. Therefore, basic access means basic technology for the rural population such as hand pumps for which a maintenance service is required but not a water service from a supplier.
- 105.
Professionalization of development of infrastructure and services implies that there is a separation line between responsibilities of civil service structures and the ‘industry’ where professionals for water and sanitation service provision receive delegated responsibilities regarding access to water and sanitation services.
- 106.
Other countries, especially when one national utility is in place, opted for the introduction of mechanism and procedures which have similar effects as tools for regulation.
- 107.
Especially on local level because of the proximity of local politicians to the utility management
- 108.
Nickson and Franceys (2003: 49).
- 109.
Including a part of the rural population (as counted by the census) which lives in already densely populated areas.
- 110.
‘In Kenya and neighbouring nations, matatu (or matatus) are privately owned minibuses serving as share taxis, As of 2014, there are more than 20,000 individual matatu in Kenya’, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matatu (last visited 05.2018).
- 111.
The regulator for water and sanitation service provision in Kenya, WASREB, limits the price at the water kiosks from utilities for a 20Â l canister to one or two KES in the country.
- 112.
However, there are little indications in the literature on how much the better off households should pay for services. A number of contribution defend a unique tariff across all customer groups.
- 113.
Fankhauser and Tepic (2005: 25, 26).
- 114.
E.g. WB program in Cotonou, largest city in Benin, 1989. The replacements of water kiosks by household connections for all in LIAs after 2Â years left around a third of households stranded because they were permanently disconnected and could no longer use water kiosks form the utilities as alternative.
- 115.
http://access-to-water-in-nairobi.gwopa.org (last visited 04.2015).
- 116.
The expression ‘water kiosk’ in this work is used for a public outlet (shared water facility) of a utility as formalized service provider.
- 117.
This problem must have been existing since the colonial time. E.g. in Kenya standards for construction, introduced by the British, require that the tap in the kitchen needs to be directly linked to the water network and cannot draw water from the storage tank in the household.
- 118.
GFA (2016)
- 119.
Refer also to Devoto et al. (2012: 68–99).
- 120.
Final combined report by GIZ (2017), including the GFA reports
- 121.
The GFA study (2016: 19) finds that the free chlorine level in a transport canister dropped within 24Â h from 1.08Â mg/l to 0.34Â mg/l.
- 122.
Delegated management to small-scale sub-contractors such as practiced in Burkina Faso or Kisumu in Kenya.
- 123.
The customer Identification Survey Pilot Report, Kericho Water and Sanitation Company Ltd (KEWASCO), elaborated by Mboya (2015), Kisumu, Kenya (2015) documents that especially in the areas where neighbourhood sales where common, water theft and anomalies of water counting and billing were prevalent. In addition, the poor had to pay 3.5 times the price for water than the large water users supplied directly by the utility.
- 124.
Established to monitor progress of MDGs concerning access to water and sanitation.
- 125.
Refer also to Fig. 2.2.
- 126.
Improved sources as defined by JMP are piped systems (on plot and shared facilities), regardless if the water quality is regularly controlled (by an authority) or not, but also single water point installations. Although SDG monitoring has defined different service levels with the highest being safely managed water, the counting of people having access to ‘improved sources’ has not been abandoned after the monitoring of the MDG came to an end in 2015. The use of some improved sources might be appropriate for the rural setting but it is not acceptable in urban areas for a number of reasons lined out in this work. The use of a proxy for the technical design of water installations for water quality stems from an intention to simplify monitoring of access to safe water. The fact that a technical design of infrastructure does not necessarily ensure water quality has been ignored by a number of ‘specialists’ who influenced the discourse on water supply and sanitation on the global level and in the developing countries.
- 127.
Karikari (2013: iv).
- 128.
- 129.
Uhuo et al. (2014: 27).
- 130.
Demographic and health surveys, welfare monitoring surveys, core welfare monitoring questionnaire, multiple indicator cluster survey, world health survey, integrated household budget survey, population and housing census, malaria indicator survey and aids indicator survey.
- 131.
www.majidata.go.ke (last visited 05.2017).
- 132.
Waris 3, information system of the regulator Wasreb in Kenya.
- 133.
In addition, service providers need to be given agreed upon standards to define their service areas in order to avoid monopolists excluding parts of the population from basic services because of profit orientation and other self-interests such as inflating coverage figures.
- 134.
JMP (2017: 4, 110) published for the first time access figures for sanitation, which included the sanitation chain. However only data from about halve of the world’s population where available for ‘safely managed sanitation’. Hence, the indication that 39% of the global population use a safely managed sanitation service needs to be taken with care. https://washdata.org/ (last visited 07.2017).
- 135.
WHO and Unicef (2017: 12), Safely managed drinking water – thematic report on drinking water 2017. The service ladder is since the SDG defined as limited, basic, safely managed. Other service levels are also considered in some literature such as water trucking, selling of water in plastic bags, reselling of water by other mobile vendors using different types of containers and means of transport. Buying water from mobile resellers can be regarded as a choice of the household and be accepted as long as the household has the option to access at any time an outlet of a formalized service provider operating under the minimum requirements set by the human rights to water and sanitation (e.g. 30 min cycle) and as long as the transport does not compromise water quality to an extent where people’s health is at risks
- 136.
It might be misleading to call access to a protected open well as service.
- 137.
World Bank (2016: 4, 5, 38).
- 138.
Baker (2008: 7).
- 139.
www.majidata.go.ke (last visited 05.2017).
- 140.
First version of MajiData 2013.
- 141.
Wasreb Report No. 6, Kenya, http://www.wasreb.go.ke/impact-reports (last visited 05.2017).
- 142.
- 143.
Kenya economic report (2013: 158).
- 144.
This also includes officially labelled ‘rural’ but densely populated areas.
- 145.
In 2012: 15.3 Mio urban population (Census 2009 and 2.9% growth) from which are 35% poor = 5.3 Mio urban poor. 2.7 Mio rural population (8 Mio Majidata minus 5.3 Mio urban poor) from which are 48% poor = 1.3 Mio rural poor (peri-urban areas). The total number of estimated poor in the urban setting is therefore 5.3 plus 1.3 = 6.6 million.
- 146.
Merriam Webster https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/poverty (last visited 05.2017).
- 147.
Kulindwa and Lein in Hemson et al. (2008: 1).
- 148.
JMP (e.g. report 2014: 9, 25, 32).
- 149.
1 US $ a day per person was used by the World Bank in 1990.
- 150.
http://economicsconcepts.com/human_poverty_index_(hpi).htm (last visited 05.2017).
- 151.
http://www.lenntech.com/library/diseases/diseases/waterborne-diseases.htm#ixzz4lMtkr5TR ‘Today we have strong evidence that water-, sanitation and hygiene-related diseases account for some 2,213,000 deaths annually and an annual loss of 82,196,000 Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) (R. Bos, Dec. 2004).
- 152.
Aderinwale and Ajayi in Hemson (2008: 72, 73).
- 153.
Olsen (2017); www.everydayfeminism.com/2017/01/escaping-poverty-is-not-easy/ (last visited 07.2017).
- 154.
Keener et al. (2010: 18).
- 155.
Mosley (1987: 168).
- 156.
Krishna (2004: 123, 128, 130).
- 157.
Hemson et al. (2008: 13).
- 158.
Customer Identification Survey Pilot Report, Kericho Water and Sanitation Company Ltd (KEWASCO), Mboya (2015: 25).
- 159.
Mboya (2015: 25–31).
- 160.
Refer also to Sect. 2.5 for the case of Betty and the issue on social connections for a few which are used to establish a business and profit from the inability of the poor to access utility services.
- 161.
The advantages and disadvantages of water kiosks and yard taps in the LIAs relative to tariffs have already been discussed.
- 162.
For instance, in Cape Town the municipality provides free toilets to the dwellers in the low-income areas and in addition a free service to empty the human waste every 2–3 days (own experience 2018). Experience shows that such extensive subsidisation is not sustainable in a fast growing environment and is of little help to develop responsibility among the beneficiaries.
- 163.
Henson et al. (2003: 163).
- 164.
Rouse (2013: 15) cites the definition of corruption by Transparency International: ‘the abuse of entrusted power for private gains’.
- 165.
Alkire and Housseini (2014: 6–9, 15 and 17).
- 166.
Page in Coles and Wallace (2005: 62).
- 167.
Joshi in Coles and Wallace (2005: 136).
- 168.
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/otherconferences/Nairobi/Nairobi%20Full%20Optimized.pdf (last visited 05.2017).
- 169.
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf (last visited 05.2017).
- 170.
Joshi in Coles and Wallace (2005: 136).
- 171.
https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/Worldswomen/Graphs/Graphs/Graph7.1.pdf (last visited 05.2017).
- 172.
Graham et al. (2016: 7, 8).
- 173.
GFA (2016: 35).
- 174.
Koolwal and van de Walle (2010: 35, 36).
- 175.
Guaranteeing access to formalized services is important because arbitrary behavior against women and girls can be better controlled and avoided. In addition, it should not be forgotten that resellers of water with a household connection from the utility (becoming informal service providers) sometimes try to prevent utilities from extending their services through water kiosks within their area of influence, which is especially punitive for women in the underserved LIAs. In 2004, the utility in Chingola, Zambia faced a number of angry resellers with household connections and non-served middle income households who wanted to prevent the opening of new water kiosks in their (underserved) area by threatening to break the kiosks down although the MD received a petition from several hundreds of underserved people (mainly women) to urgently put the kiosks into operation. Only when the utility offered, in addition to the kiosks, some household connections in the area the coalition of resellers and medium income households broke apart and the opposition to the new kiosks became manageable. To overcome the resistance by the informal service providers the utility has to make use of local knowledge and can hardly rely on the executive (police) or donors. In this case, like in many others, informality ganged up with middle income groups against the interest of the poor, whereby mainly poor women were deprived of access (own experience).
- 176.
Joshi in Coles and Wallace (2005: 135–151).
- 177.
Joshi in Coles and Wallace (2005: 142).
- 178.
Especially when the standing charges of a household connection includes the real costs of mandating the connections such as meter maintenance, meter reading and billing, etc.
- 179.
There is no pro-poor block tariff in place which ensures a cross-subsidization from the higher consumers to the poor. There is less incentive to restrict water consumption with a unique tariff than with a rising block tariff system.
- 180.
The National Water Corporation allowed owners of household connections to register as a public stand post despite the outlet is placed on private ground and the tariff for the poor can no longer be controlled. The consequence is that unrestricted access can no longer be guaranteed and the poor pay a price which is much higher than the middle and high income classes pay for water.
- 181.
E.g. the WSTF in Kenya and the DTF in Zambia.
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Werchota, R. (2020). Considerations for General W+S Issues. In: Empty Buckets and Overflowing Pits. Springer Water. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-31383-8_2
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