The Emergence of the Euro-journalists

Herzer, Martin

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-28778-8_3

Martin Herzer⁵

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in the History of the Media ((PSHM))

126 Accesses

Abstract

During the 1950s, a group of Western European journalists passionate about the European Communities and their supranational version of European integration emerged. This book refers to this group as Euro-journalists. The Euro-journalists adopted the belief that the Communities were not merely technocratic international organisations, but rather the nucleus of a democratic European polity. Moreover, they viewed European integration through the ECSC and EEC as a process which necessarily needed to move forward in order to preserve peace and prosperity in Western Europe, as well as Western Europe’s relevance in the world. As outlined in the previous chapter, Western European media coverage of European integration initially contained considerable indifference and opposition to the European Communities. In this context, Euro-journalists were instrumental in two ways. First, they put the EEC on the Western European media agenda and reported on its existence, organisation and functioning. In this regard, they were aided by the communication efforts of other supporters of the ECSC and EEC in politics, business, academia and the Community institutions. Second, Euro-journalists and other pro-European activists helped to shape a Euro-narrative within media discourse. This narrative promoted the EEC as a sui generis organisation that embodied European integration and Europe. Euro-journalists defended the EEC against attacks and competing projects for European integration, arguing that the only valid path to integration was through the EEC. By doing so, these journalists developed an advocacy journalism based on Europeanist beliefs, technical EEC-knowledge, certain journalistic practices and the Euro-narrative. In short, they created what this book terms Euro-journalism.

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Notes

1.
The FT aptly described Euro-journalist Robert Mauthner, who covered the EEC for Reuters in Brussels during the 1960s before later joining the FT. See Financial Times, Obituary: Robert Mauthner. Journalist in a class of his own, 19.5.1994. On Mauthner, see below.
2.
On Federalist networks, see Oriane Calligaro, Negotiating Europe: EU Promotion of Europeanness Since the 1950s (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013); Gérard Bossuat, ed., Inventer l’Europe: Histoire nouvelle des groupes d’influence et des acteurs de l’unité européenne (Bruxelles; New York: Peter Lang, 2003); Walter Lipgens, ed., 45 Jahre Ringen um die Europäische Verfassung: Dokumente, 1939–1984: Von den Schriften der Widerstandsbewegung bis zum Vertragsentwurf des Europäischen Parlaments (Bonn: Europa Union Verlag, 1986). On transnational networks, see Wolfram Kaiser, Brigitte Leucht, and Michael Gehler, eds., Transnational Networks in Regional Integration: Governing Europe, 1945–83 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010); Michael Gehler, Wolfram Kaiser, and Brigitte Leucht, eds., Netzwerke im europäischen Mehrebenensystem: Von 1945 bis zur Gegenwart - Networks in European Multi-Level Governance. From 1945 to the Present (Wien: Böhlau Verlag, 2009). On the role of Christian Democratic networks, see Wolfram Kaiser, Christian Democracy and the Origins of European Union (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). On the role of ‘Euro-lawyer’ networks of jurists supporting a federalist interpretation of European Law, see Antoine Vauchez, Brokering Europe: Euro-Lawyers and the Making of a Transnational Polity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015). On networks of financiers and financial experts, see Stéphanie Anne Marie Schmitz, ‘L’influence de l’élite monétaire européenne et des réseaux informels sur la coopération des Six en matière d’intégration économique (1958–1969)’ (PhD Thesis, Department of History and Civilization, European University Institute, 2014). On networks of Europeanist national diplomats, see Haakon A. Ikonomou, ‘Europeans: Norwegian Diplomats and the Enlargement of the European Community, 1960–1972’ (PhD Thesis, Department of History and Civilization, European University Institute, 2016).
3.
See Christian Delporte, ‘Les journalistes gaullistes’, in Les gaullistes: Hommes et réseaux, ed. François Audigier, Sébastien Laurent, and Bernard Lachaise (Paris: Nouveau Monde, 2013), 306–17.
4.
See Daniela Münkel, Willy Brandt und die ‘Vierte Gewalt’: Politik und Massenmedien in den 50er bis 70er Jahren (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2005).
5.
On politicised journalism and advocacy journalism in various Western European countries during the post-war decades, see the already mentioned studies by Peter Hoeres, Außenpolitik und Öffentlichkeit: Massenmedien, Meinungsforschung und Arkanpolitik in den deutsch-amerikanischen Beziehungen von Erhard bis Brandt (München: Oldenbourg, 2013); Mauro Forno, Informazione e potere: Storia del giornalismo italiano (Roma: Laterza, 2012); Christian Delporte, La France dans les yeux: Une histoire de la communication politique de 1930 à aujourd’hui (Paris: Flammarion, 2007); Christina von Hodenberg, Konsens und Krise: Eine Geschichte der westdeutschen Medienöffentlichkeit 1945–1973 (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2006); Colin Seymour-Ure, The British Press and Broadcasting Since 1945, 2nd ed. (Oxford; Cambridge: Blackwell, 1996).
6.
There are numerous references to and comments on the British media’s European integration coverage during 1961–1963 in Macmillan’s diaries. See Mathias Haeussler, ‘The Popular Press and Ideas of Europe: The Daily Mirror, the Daily Express, and Britain’s First Application to Join the EEC, 1961–63’, Twentieth Century British History 25, no. 1 (2014): 108–31.
7.
See the many examples in Kristin Pokorny, ‘Die französischen Auslandskorrespondenten in Bonn und Bundeskanzler Konrad Adenauer 1949–1963’ (Dissertation, Universität Bonn, 2006).
8.
Numerous recent studies have demonstrated the centrality of journalism and the media to both domestic and international politics, not only after 1945, but ever since the nineteenth century. For an overview, see Anuschka Tischer and Peter Hoeres, eds., Medien der Außenbeziehungen von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart (Köln; Weimar; Wien: Böhlau, 2017); Frank Bösch and Peter Hoeres, eds., Außenpolitik im Medienzeitalter vom späten 19. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart (Göttingen: Wallstein-Verlag, 2013).
9.
The British delegation to the OEEC in Paris reported in January 1957 that “we have all been concerned by the increasingly negative attitude adopted by the French press towards the Free Trade Area”. Such attacks in the French press “have been undoubtedly inspired by the Patronat and possibly some sections of the French Administration”. Hugh Ellis-Rees, United Kingdom Delegation to OEEC, Paris to Sir John Coulson, Paymaster General’s Office, January 13, 1957, National Archives, T 337/21.
10.
In February 1958, British diplomats took an interest in a Le Monde article by Pierre Drouin regarding French counterproposals to the British plans for a Western European Free Trade Area. “The Le Monde article is by Pierre Drouin, who has good contacts with the officials of the Quai d’Orsay who were involved in preparing the first draft for the French counterproposals and his article may be assumed to reflect official inspiration.” British Embassy Paris to Foreign Office, February 27, 1958, National Archives, FO 371/134491/611/206.
11.
An episode from February 1962 illustrates this. The Times Foreign Editor Iverach McDonald wrote to Editor William Haley on 8 February that “Edward Heath rang up this evening and was put on to me as you were away. Without questioning the accuracy of our reports, he said that three of our Common Market reports in the past eight days, suggesting that there were delays in the negotiations with Britain, had made a number of Ambassadors here and Ministers in Europe think that Britain herself was wanting to go slow. The reasoning was that anything which appeared in The Times, in particular anything from the Diplomatic Correspondent, reflected views of the British Government; therefore, the British Government must be going slow. I said that we published the news from good sources and we could not be responsible for far fetched interpretations.” McDonald to The Editor, February 8, 1962, TNL Archive, Subject files, Europe, Common Market and OEEC.
12.
Ambassade de France près la République fédérale d’Allemagne, Etude sur la presse quotidienne allemande, Bonn, le 17 septembre 1966, MAE/Paris Europe RFA 178QO/1424.
13.
Memorandum from A. M. Rendel to The Editor, Free Trade Area, Confidential, November 26, 1957, TNL Archive, Confidential Memoranda, Common Market, 1957–1961.
14.
Memorandum from Duncan Burn to The Editor, The Government and the Six, May 27, 1960, TNL Archive, Confidential Memoranda, Common Market, 1957–1961.
15.
Memorandum from A. M. Rendel to The Editor, Sixes and Sevens, June 2, 1960, TNL Archive, Confidential Memoranda, Common Market, 1957–1961.
16.
The Foreign Office acted on orders from the Prime Minister. “Mr. Bishop at No. 10 told me to-day that the Prime Minister had read with approval to-day’s Leader in the Financial Times. The Prime Minister had thought that this Leader ought to be brought to the attention of the German Ambassador.” P.F. Hancock to Mr. Holliday, Free Trade Area, November 28 1958, National Archives, FO 371/134518/611/1069.
17.
See Jansen to Diplogerma Rom, Auf Berichte vom 7.1. und Nr. 13 vom 9.1.1963, 20.3.1963, PA AA, B 24 491.
18.
Memorandum from Oliver Woods to The Editor, Mr. McDonald, Mr. David Wood, Mr. Spanier, Confidential, September 3, 1962, TNL Archive, Confidential Memoranda, Common Market, 1962–1963.
19.
Télegramme, Crouy to Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Bruxelles, le 22 janvier 1966, MAE/Paris FRMAE22QO/153.
20.
N. Statham, Visit of 15 Senior French Journalists, October 10 and 11, 1967, October 9, 1967, National Archives, PREM 13/1503.
21.
Macmillan cited in Mark Anthony Tawil, ‘British Government and Press Perceptions of and Policy Preferences for European Integration during the Macmillan Years: Discourse between the Estates and the Search for Policy Symmetry’ (PhD Thesis, University of London, King’s College, Department of War Studies, 2005), 117.
22.
Hargrove, Memorandum, Personal and Confidential, 3.4.71, National Archives, PREM 15/348.
23.
It is important to bear in mind that the term public opinion could refer to varying concepts in post-war Western Europe. It could refer to elite public opinion (similar to the concept of enlightened public opinion), mass public opinion as expressed in public opinion polls (which came into usage in Western Europe in the 1950s), or aggregate media coverage in a specific country or on a particular issue. In primary sources, it is not always clear in which sense decision makers were using the term. For a Begriffsgeschichte of the different meanings of public opinion in international relations, see Stephen Wertheim, ‘Reading the International Mind: International Public Opinion in Early Twentieth Century Anglo-American Thought’, in The Decisionist Imagination: Sovereignty, Social Science, and Democracy in the Twentieth Century, ed. Nicolas Guilhot and Daniel Bessner (New York; London: Berghahn Books, 2018), 27–63.
24.
Foreign Secretary to Prime Minister, Visit of Senior French Journalists, Confidential, 11 July, 1967, National Archives, PREM 13/1503.
25.
They grouped the participating journalists into those “actively in sympathy with General de Gaulle” and those who realised “that French Government arguments are not objective.” They also prepared answers to expected questions “recurrent in French propaganda”. N. Statham, Visit of 15 Senior French Journalists, October 10 and 11, 1967, 9 October, 1967, National Archives, PREM 13/1503.
26.
D.L.N. Goochild to Miss Petrie, Mr. Hancock, Sir C. O’Neill, Mr. Morland, Results of the Visit by the 15 French Journalists, October 20, 1967, National Archives, FCO 26/98.
27.
Petrie to Sir Fife Clark, Director General, Central Office of Information, 27 October, 1967, National Archives, FCO 26/98.
28.
Heath cited in Tawil, ‘British Government and Press Perceptions of and Policy Preferences for European Integration during the Macmillan Years’, 103.
29.
Bömcke to Löffelholz, den 29 Juli 1965, Löffelholz private papers.
30.
Bömcke to Stuttgarter Zeitung, Brüssel, den 23 Januar 1967. Editor in chief Rainer Tross responded to Bömcke that he considered Löffelholz’s claims a justified criticism of the Council of Minister’s actions. See Tross to Bömcke, Stuttgart, 26.1.1967, Abschrift, Löffelholz private papers.
31.
See Roger Massip and Renée Massip, Les Passants du Siècle (Paris: Editions Grasset, 1981), 259–65.
32.
On the Europeanism of the early Brussels correspondents, see also Olivier Baisnée, ‘La production de l’actualité communautaire. Eléments d’une sociologie comparée du corps de presse accrédité auprès de l’Union européenne’ (Thèse de doctorat, Mention ‘Science Politique’, Université de Rennes I, 2003); Gilles Bastin, ‘Les professionnels de l’information européenne à Bruxelles: Sociologie d’un monde de l’information (territoires, carrières, dispositifs)’ (Thèse de doctorat en sociologie, École normale supérieure de Cachan, 2003).
33.
Antoine Vauchez has developed a similar categorisation in his study on ‘Euro-lawyers’. Vauchez identified “legal cosmopolitans” and “national brokers”. See Vauchez, Brokering Europe, 103–15. Moreover, scholars researching the work and identity of foreign correspondents often underline the cosmopolitan character of their biographies and careers. See Norman Domeier and Jörn Happel, ‘Journalismus und Politik: Einleitende Überlegungen zur Tätigkeit von Auslandskorrespondenten 1900–1970’, Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, Themenheft Auslandskorrespondenten: Journalismus und Politik 1900–1970, herausgegeben von Norman Domeier und Jörn Happel 62, no. 5 (2014): 389–97.
34.
See Hans Herbert Götz, ‘Die berufsständisch selbstverwaltete Wirtschaft als ökonomisches und ordnungspolitisches Problem’ (Dissertation Rechts- und Staatswissenschaftliche Fakultät, Universität Freiburg, 1949).
35.
Götz published a book of praise for the social market economy, summarising his work in Bonn from 1953 to 1963. See Hans Herbert Götz, Weil alle besser leben wollen… Porträt der deutschen Wirtschaftspolitik (Düsseldorf; Wien: Econ-Verlag, 1963).
36.
See Lojewski, Vermerk für Herrn Stülpnagel, Brüssel, den 19 Juni 1958, BArch N 1266/1803.
37.
The EEC Commission had asked Götz to write the brochure. See Hans Herbert Götz, Europäische Agrarpolitik auf neuen Wegen (Baden-Baden: Lutzeyer, 1959).
38.
Die Zeit asked Götz to head the weekly’s business section in late 1957. See Aktennotiz über eine Besprechung mit Herrn Direktor Hoffmann und Herrn Dr. Muckel am 8.1.1958, BArch N 1314/380. Die Welt offered him a job in early 1961. See Welter to Götz, 30 Januar 1961, BArch N 1314/469. The Westdeutscher Rundfunk tried to hire Götz in June 1962. See Götz to Welter, Bonn, den 5 Juni 1962 and Welter to Götz, Mainz, den 8 Juni 1962 both in BArch N 1314/417. Götz declined all offers—although they would have meant considerable pay raises—stating “that for a professionally happily ‘married’ man, it is difficult, or almost impossible, to cut ties with the F.A.Z.” Götz to Welter, Bonn, den 5 Juni 1962, BArch N 1314/417.
39.
Interview with Paul Collowald in Brussels, 05.02.2015.
40.
His thesis dealt with a topic of legal philosophy, “Trois doctrines de l’absolutisme: Machiavel, Hobbes, Bossuet”. See Le Monde, Pierre Drouin, journaliste, 11.09.2010.
41.
See Personality notes on French journalists invited to see the Prime Minister, no date, National Archives, PREM 13/1503.
42.
See Jacques Thibau, Le Monde: Histoire d’un journal, un journal dans l’histoire (Paris: J.-C. Simoën, 1978), 298.
43.
See Patrick Eveno, Histoire du journal Le Monde 1944–2004 (Paris: Albin Michel, 2004), 15.
44.
See Jacques Ferrandi, Entretien avec Jacques FERRANDI par Jean-Marie Palayret et Anaïs Legendre à Ajaccio les 28 et 29 mai 2004, Oral History Project ‘Histoire interne de la Commission’, 2004.
45.
See Le Monde, Pierre Drouin, journaliste, 11.09.2010.
46.
See Laurent Warlouzet, ‘Les identités économiques européennes en débat dans les années 1960: « Europe arbitre » et « Europe volontariste »’, Relations internationales 139, no. 3 (2009): 9–23.
47.
See Götz, Weil alle besser leben wollen….
48.
See Götz, 328.
49.
Götz to Welter, 20.1.1963, BArch N 1314/307.
50.
See Pierre Drouin, L’Europe du Marché Commun (Paris: Julliard, 1963). Drouin indicates that the book was in part based on articles on the EEC published in Le Monde, as well as on research he had done for those articles.
51.
Drouin declared in Le Monde in 1957 that “the engine of progress is competition”. See Pierre Drouin, II.—Points sensibles et faux problèmes, Le Monde, 29.06.1957.
52.
Drouin, L’Europe du Marché Commun, 222.
53.
Drouin, 224.
54.
Pierre Drouin, II.—Points sensibles et faux problèmes, Le Monde, 29.06.1957.
55.
Pierre Drouin, Les “grands espaces” économiques, Le Monde, 30.07.1960.
56.
Drouin, L’Europe du Marché Commun, 248.
57.
Giorgio Smoquina, ‘La stampa e la comunità’, in La Comunità Economica Europea, ed. Centro internazionale di studi e documentazione sulle Comunità Europee (Milano: Giuffre, 1960), 295–315.
58.
See Reuter to Privat, Anhang: Liste der in Brüssel ansässigen deutschen Journalisten, Brüssel den 3 November 1959, BArch B 145/7182.
59.
Dem Herrn Präsidenten, Brüssel, 5 Oktober 1959, BArch N 1266/302.
60.
Fernschreiben Bruessel euro to Bonn AA, Betr.: Reise Bruesseler Journalisten nach Damaskus, Beirut und Amman, 01.02.1978, PA AA.
61.
Looking back in 1992, Hellmann claimed that “From 1958, the VWD-Europe service was the only German-language service that reported daily on the process of European integration”. Rainer Hellmann, ‘Germania: molti media e molto libero mercato’, in Europa economia: l’informazione specializzata nei media, ed. Gerolamo Fiori et al., LACEF Laboratorio per la comunicazione economica e finanziaria dell’Università Bocconi (Milano: Egea, 1992), 29.
62.
Dem Herrn Präsidenten, Betrifft: Besuch der Herren vom „Volkswirt“, Herausgeber Dr. F. Reuter und Chefredakteur Dr. W. Trautmann, Brüssel, den 25 Juli 1963, BArch N 1266/1708.
63.
See Rainer Hellmann, Amerika auf dem Europamarkt: US-Direktinvestitionen im Gemeinsamen Markt (Baden-Baden: Nomos-Verlagsgesellschaft, 1966); Rainer Hellmann, Weltunternehmen nur amerikanisch? Das Ungleichgewicht der Investitionen zwischen Amerika und Europa (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1970).
64.
See Reiner Marcowitz, ‘Im Spannungsverhältnis von Amerikanisierung, Europäisierung und Westernisierung. Die Zäsur der 1960er und 1970er Jahre für die transatlantische Europadebatte’, in Deutschland--Frankreich--Nordamerika: Transfers, Imaginationen, Beziehungen, ed. Chantal Metzger and Hartmut Kaelble (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2006), 98–123.
65.
On the contacts between Loch and Hallstein, see Ingrid Piela, Walter Hallstein—Jurist und gestaltender Europapolitiker der ersten Stunde: Politische und institutionelle Visionen des ersten Präsidenten der EWG-Kommission (1958–1967) (Berlin: Berliner Wissenschafts-Verlag, 2012), 22.
66.
See Theo M. Loch, Die Neun von Brüssel (Bonn: Europa Union Verlag, 1963); Theo M. Loch, Walter Hallstein - Europa 1980: Neue Wege nach Europa (Andernach: Pontes Verlag, 1968).
67.
See Hellmann, ‘Germania: molti media e molto libero mercato’, 45.
68.
On the history of Le Figaro, see Claire Blandin, Le Figaro: Histoire d’un journal (Paris: Nouveau Monde, 2010). See also the section “Les milieux de la presse” in Gérard Bossuat, L’Europe des Français, 1943–1959: La IVe République aux sources de l’Europe communautaire (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1996).
69.
See Jean Lecerf, La percée de l’économie française (Paris: Arthaud, 1963).
70.
See Jean Lecerf, Histoire de l’unité européenne (Paris: Gallimard, 1965).
71.
See Jean Lecerf, La Communauté en péril: Histoire de l’unité européenne 2 (Paris: Gallimard, 1975).
72.
See Jean Lecerf, La Communauté face à la crise. Histoire de l’unité européenne 3 (Paris: Gallimard, 1984).
73.
Etienne Burin des Roziers, Représentant permanent de la France auprès des Communautés européennes to M. le Secrétaire d’Etat auprès du Premier Ministre, Chargé de la fonction publique et des services de l’information, Objet: La presse française auprès des Communautés européennes, Bruxelles, le 19 février 1973, MAE/Paris 505/DI 66.
74.
In June 1966, Lemaître and de l’Écotais published a leaked report by Eelco van Kleffens, head of the ECSC information office in London. In the report of February 1966, Kleffens expressed strong concerns about the state of the British economy, concluding that “many things suggest that in joining the Community, Britain will bring with it periodic monetary and balance of payments crises, and will try to make these the problems of the Community.” Not surprisingly, the report received considerable attention when it was published by AFP and Le Monde on 6 June 1966. See Philippe Lemaître, La ‘maladie anglaise’ risque de contaminer les Six estime la délégation de la C.E.C.A. à Londres, Le Monde, 06.06.1966.
75.
See Yann de l’Ecotais, L’Europe sabotée (Bruxelles; Paris: Rossel, 1976).
76.
See Yann de l’Ecotais, Naissance d’une nation (Paris: B. Grasset, 1990).
77.
See Muriel de l’Ecotais and Yann de l’Ecotais, L’Europe racontée en famille (Paris: Plon, 2008).
78.
On Lemaître, see Baisnée, ‘La production de l’actualité communautaire: Eléments d’une sociologie comparée du corps de presse accrédité auprès de l’Union européenne’, 307–8. Interview with Philippe Lemaître in Brussels, 06.02.2015.
79.
See for example the visions for European integration and the EEC outlined in the books by Pierre Drouin, Yann de l’Écotais and José Alain Fralon. Drouin, L’Europe du Marché Commun; José Alain Fralon, L’Europe c’est fini (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1975); Ecotais, L’Europe sabotée.
80.
See William Glenn Gray, ‘Floating the System: Germany, the United States, and the Breakdown of Bretton Woods, 1969–1973’, Diplomatic History 31, no. 2 (2007): 295–323.
81.
Ecotais, L’Europe sabotée, 69.
82.
The newspaper’s owner was the Confindustria, the association representing Italian industry and big business. See Piero Bairati and Salvatore Carrubba, La trasparenza difficile: Storia di due giornali economici, ‘Il Sole’ e ‘24 ore’ (Palermo: Sellerio, 1990).
83.
See Vittorio Zucconi, Parola di giornalista (Milano: Rizzoli, 1990), 92. Zucconi worked as a correspondent for La Stampa in Brussels between 1969 and 1973 and became a friend of Piccione.
84.
Franco Ivaldo, Racconti gotici, available at http://www.truciolisavonesi.it/305/racconti.pdf [accessed 01.05.2016].
85.
See Spinelli to Thorn, Bruxelles, 29/10/1980, HAEU AS-334.
86.
Piccione co-authored the book with his Il Sole 24 Ore colleague Adriana Cerretelli. See Adriana Cerretelli and Ugo Piccione, L’Europa contro se stessa: L’industria europea di fronte alla sfida di USA e Giappone (Milano: Edizioni del Sole 24 Ore, 1985).
87.
Sandro Doglio and Bruno Valle, Europa senza domani? (Torino: Aeda, 1968).
88.
Giovannini published several books based on his travels to these regions. See Giovanni Giovannini, Africa Nord (Torino: AEDA, 1973); Giovanni Giovannini, Giappone domani (Torino: AEDA, 1967); Giovanni Giovannini, Congo nel cuore delle tenebre (Milano: Mursia, 1966).
89.
See Meyers, Note à l’attention de Monsieur le Président, Aperçu de la presse néerlandaise, Bruxelles, le 15 décembre 1961, BArch N 1266/1172.
90.
See Poorterman, Mémorandum à Monsieur le Commissaire E.M.J.A. Sassen, Bruxelles, le 4 décembre 1962, HAEU BAC-118/1986_1795.
91.
Mozer was Mansholt’s chef de cabinet between 1958 and 1970. He was an important figure in Dutch pro-EEC circles. See Louis Metzemaekers, Alfred Mozer - Hongaar, Duitser, Nederlander, Europeaan (Den Haag: Europese Beweging in Nederland, 1970).
92.
See Meyers, Note à l’attention de Monsieur le Président, Aperçu de la presse néerlandaise, Bruxelles, le 15 décembre 1961, BArch N 1266/1172.
93.
In November 1959, Rebuffat figured on a list of journalists with a special interest in the EEC drawn up by the Permanent Representation of the Federal Republic in Brussels. See Reuter to Privat, Anhang: Liste der in Brüssel ansässigen deutschen Journalisten and In Brüssel ansässige und an Europafragen interessierte ausländische Journalisten, Brüssel den 3 November 1959, BArch B 145/7182.
94.
Ursula Thiele, Entretien avec Ursula THIELE par Michel Dumoulin et Anaïs Legendre à Bruxelles le 20 octobre 2004, Transcription révisée par Mme Thiele; Oral History Project ‘Histoire interne de la Commission’, 2004.
95.
See Association des Journalistes Européens, Conseil Directeur, Membres présents au Colloque et à l’Assemblée générale Strasbourg, 27–28 novembre 1964.
96.
Télegramme, Crouy to Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Bruxelles, le 17 janvier 1966, MAE/Paris FRMAE22QO/153.
97.
Heath to Keith, Brussels, 20 August 1969, National Archives, FCO 26/389.
98.
See Paul Hodgson to Lord Chalfont, Wimbledon, 23 July 1969, National Archives, FCO 26/389.
99.
In 1967, Spaak explained that he had not attended the 10-year anniversary celebrations of the Treaty of Rome because he had been angered by how the governments of the Six had treated Walter Hallstein. See Paul Henri-Spaak, Pourquoi je ne suis pas allé à Rome, Le Soir, 4/5 juin 1967.
100.
See Telegramme, Crouy to Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Bruxelles, le 3/6/67, MAE/Paris FRMAE22QO/153.
101.
On The Economist, Layton and European integration, see Oliver J. Daddow, Britain and Europe Since 1945: Historiographical Perspectives on Integration (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004), 90–95; Oliver J. Daddow, ‘Introduction: The Historiography of Wilson’s Attempt to Take Britain into the EEC’, in Harold Wilson and European Integration: Britain’s Second Application to Join the EEC, ed. Oliver J. Daddow (London; Portland: Frank Cass, 2003), 4–5; Ángel Arrese, La identidad de The Economist (Pamplona: EUNSA, 1995), 25–26.
102.
See Olivi to Kruls, Bruxelles, 19 juin 1961, BArch N 1266/1710.
103.
See Christopher Layton, European Advanced Technology: A Programme for Integration (London; P.E.P.: Allen & Unwin, 1969); Christopher Layton and Georges Suffert, 14 points pour faire l’Europe (Paris: Denoël, 1969).
104.
Memorandum from D. Spanier to the Editor, Mr. Wilson and Europe, May 31, 1965, TNL Archive Subject files, Europe, European Free Trade Area—Confidential Memoranda.
105.
See The Editor to Mr. Egerton, European Economic Correspondent, June 23, 1964, TNL Archive Subject files, Europe, EEC, 1962–1967.
106.
See Memorandum from D. Spanier to the Editor, Mr. Wilson and Europe, May 31, 1965, TNL Archive Subject files, Europe, European Free Trade Area—Confidential Memoranda.
107.
Switzerland was a member of EFTA, but began negotiating an association agreement with the EEC in 1962. The negotiations became obsolete with de Gaulle’s veto of British membership in 1963. However, the question of finding some kind of economic arrangement with EEC countries remained a central issue in Swiss debates on foreign and economic policy. According to West German diplomats, “the Swiss press is providing its readers with good and detailed information about all relevant developments in the EEC.” Deutsche Botschaft Bern to Auswärtiges Amt, Betr.: Zusammenarbeit der Informationsreferenten der EWG-Staaten im Ausland, Bern, den 5 Mai 1965, PA AA, B 20–200, 1141.
108.
See Olivi to Kruls, Bruxelles, 19 juin 1961, BArch N 1266/1710.
109.
Organisation des Journalistes européens to Hallstein, Bruxelles, le 17 Novembre 1966, BArch N 1266/2261. Zeller also invited Hallstein to events organised by the Organisation des journalistes européens. See Zeller to Hallstein, Bruxelles, 22 März 1967, BArch N 1266/1061. Moreover, Zeller petitioned the EEC Commission with complaints on behalf of his colleagues. See Willy Zeller to Commission des Communautés Européennes, Bruxelles, le 20 février 1968, HAEU BAC-038/1984_0145.
110.
See Franz E. Aschinger and Willy Zeller, Die Schweiz und die EWG: Versuch einer Standortbestimmung (Zürich: Buchverlag Neue Züricher Zeitung, 1968); Willy Zeller, Porträt der Europäischen Gemeinschaften: Die Wesensmerkmale von EWG, Montanunion und Euratom, Second edition (Zürich: Buchverlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 1971).
111.
See Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Willy Zeller wird 80, 16.03.2009.
112.
See Jörg Thalmann, Auf Posten in Brüssel. Hinter den Kulissen von EU und Nato, geschrieben 1998–2000, neu bearbeitet und bis 2013 nachgeführt im März 2013, 4) Einleitung: Wie ich zum Europäer und wie ich zum Journalisten wurde“, Jörg Thalmann private papers; Interview with Jörg Thalmann in Brussels, 25.06.2014.
113.
Rupert Cornwell, Robert Mauthner, The Independent, 23.05.1994.
114.
The Financial Times, Obituary: Robert Mauthner. Journalist in a class of his own, 19.05.1994.
115.
See Mauthner to The General Manager, London, 31st August, 1961, Reuters Archive 1/8981328.
116.
See Mr. Nelson to The General Manger, Common Market, July 7, 1961, Reuters Archive 1/8981328.
117.
Mauthner to The General Manager, Attention to Mr. Doon Campbell, April 4, 1962, Reuters Archive, 1/8981328.
118.
Nabokoff to The General Manager, June 28, 1967, Reuters Archive, 1/8981328.
119.
The following paragraph draws from Caroline Studdert’s biography on Slis. See Caroline R. Studdert, Hellcat of the Hague: The Nel Slis Story (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2013).
120.
Slis quoted in Studdert, 149.
121.
Interview with Guido Naets in Brussels, 06.02.2015.
122.
See Le Soir, Décès d’Henri Deheyn, secrétaire général de l’Association de la Presse internationale, 05.08.2013.
123.
See Fernschreiben Harkort, Bruessel (eurogerma) to Auswärtiges Amt, August 10, 1962, PA AA, B 7 38.
124.
Emanuele Gazzo and Agence Europe have already been subject to substantial research. If not otherwise indicated, the following paragraphs are based on the following sources: Bastin, ‘Les professionnels de l’information européenne à Bruxelles: Sociologie d’un monde de l’information (territoires, carrières, dispositifs)’, 117–24; Gilles Bastin, ‘L’Europe saisie par l’information (1952–2001): Des professionnels du journalisme engagé aux content coordinators. Sociologie du monde de production de l’information européenne à Bruxelles’, Cahiers Politiques, 2003, 19–41; Agathe Lelu, L’action européiste de l’agence europe à travers les archives d’Émanuelle Gazzo, Mémoire de maîtrise, Université de Paris I – Panthéon Sorbonne, UFR d’Histoire (Paris, 2000).
125.
Roy Jenkins, European Diary: 1977–1981 (London: Collins, 1989), 93 (4 May 77, Brussels).
126.
After his departure from Brussels in 1977, Soames kept in contact with Gazzo. He continued reading the Agence Europe bulletins. Gazzo gave Soames a free subscription. Soames to Gazzo, 3 November 1977, CAC SOAM/52/2.
127.
See Gazzo to Soames, Bruxelles, le 28 décembre 1977, CAC SOAM/52/2.
128.
See Soames to Thatcher, 6 January 1978, CAC SOAM/52/2.
129.
Soames to Palliser, KCMG, 6 January, 1978, CAC SOAM/52/2.
130.
See Rabe, Vermerk, Brüssel, den 1 Oktober 1969, PA AA, B 20-200/1586.
131.
See Boegner, DELFRA Bruxelles to Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, A l’attention de M. Jacques Martin, Bruxelles, le 18 avril 1967, MAE/Paris FRMAE 22QO/153.
132.
Many Brussels correspondents had subscriptions to Agence Europe. In 1963, Corriere della Sera Brussels correspondent Gianfranco Ballardin told the Corriere administration regarding Agence Europe that “all the other Brussels correspondents have been subscribers for years”. See Ballardin to Direttore Amministrativo, Bruxelles, 16.6.63, ASCdD 3115. One of the first things Brussels correspondents would do in the morning is to have a look at the Agence Europe bulletin.
133.
Noël to Collowald, 30 mars 1983, HAEU, EN-1059.
134.
See Nabokoff, Brief note on the organisation of specialised Common Market news agencies in Brussels & Luxembourg, Brussels, July 24, 1961, Reuters Archive, 1/8981328.
135.
Mme Marguerite Chartrette, (Le Progrès de Lyon), Note sur l’Association de la Presse Diplomatique (1955), MAE/Paris 544INVA/16.
136.
Public opinion research in Western Europe by Ronald Inglehart for the 1960s shows that support for the general idea of European integration, as well as for concrete steps towards integration in EEC countries, was particularly high among the younger generations, while older people were a lot less enthusiastic about the idea of abandoning nation states in favour of a European union. See Ronald Inglehart, ‘Public Opinion and Regional Integration’, International Organization 24, no. 4 (1970): 764–95; Ronald Inglehart, ‘An End to European Integration?’ American Political Science Review 61, no. 1 (1967): 91–105.
137.
Drouin, L’Europe du Marché Commun, 346.
138.
Hodenberg’s argument on the rise of critical journalism in the Federal Republic is well-founded. However, her narrative also downplays journalistic opposition to Adenauer in the 1950s, reflects outdated German Sonderweg thinking and is based on a superficial and normative idea of a superior Western and Anglo-American journalism. See Hodenberg, Konsens und Krise. Hodenberg’s emphasis on generation in explaining changes in West German journalism has been criticised. See the conclusion in Hoeres, Außenpolitik und Öffentlichkeit; Marcus M. Payk, ‘“…die Herren fügen sich nicht; sie sind schwierig.” Gemeinschaftsdenken, Generationenkonflikte und die Dynamisierung des Politischen in der konservativen Presse der 1950er und 1960er Jahre’, in Die zweite Gründung der Bundesrepublik: Generationswechsel und intellektuelle Wortergreifungen 1955–1975, ed. Franz-Werner Kersting, Jürgen Reulecke, and Hans-Ulrich Thamer (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2010), 43–67.
139.
See Philippe Riutort, ‘Le journalisme au service de l’économie. Les conditions d’émergence de l’information économique en France à partir des années 50’, Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales 131, no. 1 (2000): 41–55. Jean Boissonnat is quoted on page 49. See also Philippe Riutort, ‘Les nouveaux habits du journalisme économique’, Hermès, La Revue 44, no. 1 (2006): 135–41.
140.
See the conclusion of George Wilkes, ‘British Attitudes to the European Economic Community, 1956–63’ (PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2002).
141.
See Massip’s and his wife’s joint autobiography, Massip and Massip, Les Passants du Siècle.
142.
See Captuller, Aufzeichnung, Betr.: Jahreskongreß 1966 der Vereinigung Europäischer Journalisten in Berlin, Bonn, den, September 16, 1966, BArch B 145/5253.
143.
Jürgen Jeske, Ernst Kobbert gestorben, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 20.02.1999, p. 6.
144.
See Eick to Welter, Frankfurt, den 22.9.1959, BArch N 1314/371.
145.
See Kobbert’s book on Belgium: Ernst Kobbert, 26mal Belgien, 1mal Luxemburg (München; Zürich: Piper, 1988).
146.
See Kobbert to Dechamps, Ottenhöfen, 3.XI.1988, BArch N 1426/19.
147.
See Lecerf, Histoire de l’unité européenne.
148.
Massip and Massip, Les Passants du Siècle, 238.
149.
Löwenthal cited in Stefan Winckler, Gerhard Löwenthal: Ein Beitrag zur politischen Publizistik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Berlin: Be.bra-Wiss.-Verl., 2011), 234.
150.
Massip and Massip, Les Passants du Siècle, 235–36.
151.
On Monnet’s many contacts with journalists, see Jacob Krumrey, The Symbolic Politics of European Integration: Staging Europe (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).
152.
Massip and Massip, Les Passants du Siècle, 249.
153.
Jean Monnet, Mémoires (Paris: Fayard, 1976), 359.
154.
Massip and Massip, Les Passants du Siècle, 249.
155.
Massip and Massip, 251.
156.
Monnet, Mémoires, 502.
157.
See Monnet’s preface to Lecerf’s 1965 history of European integration in Lecerf, Histoire de l’unité européenne.
158.
Interview with Jacqueline Grapin in Paris, 10.02.2016. See also the bibliographical notes mentioning Fontaine, Uri and de Carmoy as sources in Roger Massip, Voici l’Europe (Paris: Fayard, 1958).
159.
Götz to Tern, Brüssel, 8.10.1964, BArch N 1314/277.
160.
Götz to Welter, Brüssel 27.3.69, BArch N 1314/451.
161.
Götz wrote the chapter alongside his regular work for the FAZ and told Welter that “The book cost me a lot of energy”. Götz to Welter, Brüssel 27.9.69, BArch N 1314/451.
162.
Walter Hallstein, Der unvollendete Bundesstaat: Europäische Erfahrungen und Erkenntnisse (Düsseldorf: Econ, 1969). See also Götz to Welter, Brüssel 27.9.69, BArch N 1314/451 and Piela, Walter Hallstein - Jurist und gestaltender Europapolitikerder ersten Stunde, 48–49.
163.
Hallstein to Götz, Bühl, den 13 Juni 1976, BArch N 1266/1834.
164.
Götz to Hallstein, Berlin, 2.5.1979 N 1266/1834.
165.
See Hans Herbert Götz, ‘Die Krise 1965–66’, in Walter Hallstein, der vergessene Europäer? ed. Wilfried Loth, William Wallace, and Wolfgang Wessels (Bonn: Europa-Union-Verlag, 1995), 189–202.
166.
Löwenthal claims he had “a good personal relationship” with Hallstein. See Gerhard Löwenthal, Ich bin geblieben: Erinnerungen (München: Herbig, 1987), 256.
167.
Hallstein to Löwenthal, Bonn, den 7 Dezember 1972, BArch, N 1266/65. Löwenthal describes his support for the EEC and his contacts with Hallstein in his memoires. See Löwenthal, Ich bin geblieben. On Löwenthal himself, his support for European integration and particularly his controversial role moderating the flagship anti-communist political magazine ZDF Magazin on West German public television between 1969 and 1987, see Winckler, Gerhard Löwenthal.
168.
Memorandum from the Foreign Editor, Visit to Brussels, 14–16 October 1962, TNL Archive, Confidential Memoranda, Common Market, 1962–1963.
169.
D.G. Spanier, Memorandum to the Editor, Future Coverage of the Common Market, December 11, 1961, TNL Archive, Subject files, Europe, Common Market and OEEC.
170.
Monday, December 11, 1961, CAC, HALY 15/2.
171.
See Mauthner to The General Manager, Attention of Mr. Doon Campbell, April 4, 1962, Reuters Archive, 1/8981328.
172.
On the initially small body of EEC public servants, see Katja Seidel, The Process of Politics in Europe: The Rise of European Elites and Supranational Institutions (London: Tauris Academic Studies, 2010).
173.
Ecotais, L’Europe sabotée, 144.
174.
During the 1960s and 1970s, any accredited journalist could freely enter the Commission buildings. This practice differed considerably from the strict admission rules at national ministries in the EEC member states. See De Koster, Note pour M. Noël, Objet: accès des journalistes dans les immeubles de la Commission, Bruxelles, le 27 juin 1978, HAEU, EN-2566.
175.
See Marcell von Donat, Brüsseler Machenschaften: Dem Euro-Clan auf der Spur (Baden-Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 1975), 160–61.
176.
See Martin Herzer, ‘Euroleaks. Medien und Geheimnisverrat im Umfeld der Europäischen Gemeinschaften in Brüssel, 1958–1985’, in Medien der Außenbeziehungen von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart, ed. Anuschka Tischer and Peter Hoeres (Köln; Weimar; Wien: Böhlau, 2017), 365–88. As information was available from many sources, the EC Commission spokesman Bino Olivi had a lot less influence than has been suggested in previous research. See Gilles Bastin, ‘Une politique de l’information? Le “système Olivi” ou l’invention des relations de presse à la Commission européenne’, in La communication sur l’Europe: regards croisés, ed. Eric Mamer, Concours Union européenne (Strasbourg: Ecole nationale d’administration, CEES Centre des études européennes de Strasbourg, 2007), 125–36.
177.
The organisation was comprised of journalists covering the EEC, EURATOM and the ECSC from Brussels. Organisation des journalistes européens to Président de la Haute Autorité, Bruxelles, le 2 Décembre’62, HAEU, BAC-118/1986_1795.
178.
See Association des journalistes européens, Comité d’initiative, Communiqué de presse, Paris, le 28 mai 1962, HAEU CIFE-99.
179.
See Association des Journalistes Européens, Conseil Directeur, Membres présents au Colloque et à l’Assemblée générale Strasbourg, 27–28 novembre 1964, BArch B 145/5253.
180.
See Steinkühler, Aufzeichnung, Betr.: Kongress der Vereinigung europäischer Journalisten in Straßburg, Bonn, den 9. Dezember 1964, BArch B 145/5253.
181.
Brussels correspondents Ferdinand Himpele, Elmar Mundt, Charles Rebuffat and Louis Metzemaekers were involved in the association’s founding. See Europa-Union Deutschland, Betrifft: Tagung des Organisations-Ausschusses der Europäischen Journalisten vom 20.-22 September 1962 im Haus Lerbach, BArch B 145/5253. Roger Massip was initially a member of the association’s French section. See Association des journalistes européens, Communiqué, no date, HAEU, CIFE-99.
182.
There were several reasons for this. First, the association propagated the EEC so aggressively that the journalists worried they might appear too partisan by joining it. Second, the association also admitted part-time journalists and public servants working in media relations. Third, there were many journalists with a low journalistic reputation among the association’s members. See Captuller, Vermerk, Betr.: Jahreskongress 1966 der Vereinigung Europäischer Journalisten in Berlin, Bonn, den 1. April 1966 BArch B 145/5253 and Trout, Head Press and Information Services to Colin Keith, The Hague, 21 August, 1969, National Archives, FCO 26/389.
183.
Isolani to Keith, Association of European Journalists, Paris, September 26, 1969, National Archives, FCO 26/389.
184.
See Jean Herly, Consul Général de France à Düsseldorf to Son Excellence Monsieur François Seydoux de Clausonne, Ambassadeur de France près la République Fédérale d’Allemagne, a/s: Réunion annuelle des éditeurs des journaux économiques européens, Düsseldorf, le 26 juillet 1966, MAE/Paris Europe RFA 178QO/1423.

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Herzer, M. (2019). The Emergence of the Euro-journalists. In: The Media, European Integration and the Rise of Euro-journalism, 1950s–1970s. Palgrave Studies in the History of the Media. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28778-8_3

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