Abstract
Perhaps as in no other area of meteorology, radar has proven to be the key tool in modern detection and forecasting, as well as in identifying and understanding the physics, of convective storms and convective systems. From its initial deployment as a research tool following the second World War [see the excellent review of the history of radar meteorology in chapter 1 of the AMS monograph Radar in Meteorology, edited by Dave Atlas (Fletcher 1990)], radar has played a fundamental role in increasing our understanding of the forces that initiate and organize severe storms and larger convective systems that are composed of a conglomeration of convective storm cells. Early radar observations were primarily descriptive and showed the tremendous variety of types and sizes of precipitating moist convection (see reviews by Browning 1990; Parsons et al. 1990; Ray 1990; Carbone et al. 1990b; Smull 1995). Examples of types include single convective storms, longer-lived multicellular storms, fast-moving squall lines, slower-moving linear and nonlinear convective systems, and long-lived supercell storms. Although this review emphasizes the role played by radar in observational studies of convective storms and systems, the ever-increasing use of numerical models in explaining the dynamics of precipitating convective systems has resulted in the inclusion of many of those studies. Moreover, we believe numerical models will play an increasing role in extending our understanding of these phenomena by providing information on variables and in areas that are unobserved by radar and other instruments. Likewise, the accuracy of simulations that involve unavoidable parameterization of unresolved or poorly understood physics must be verified against data from the same observing systems.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Achtemeier, G. L., 1983: The relationship between the surface wind field and convective precipitation over the St. Louis area. J. Appl. Meteor., 22, 982–999.
Achtemeier, G. L., 1991: The use of insects as tracers for “clear-air” boundary-layer studies by Doppler radar. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 8, 746–765.
Alexander, G. D., and G. S. Young, 1992: The relationship between EMEX mesoscale precipitation feature properties and their environmental characteristics. Mon. Wea. Rev., 120, 554–564.
Arritt, R. W., 1993: Effects of the large-scale flow on characteristic features of the sea breeze. J. Appl. Meteor., 32, 116–125.
Atkins, N. T., and R. M. Wakimoto, 1997: Influence of the synoptic-scale flow on sea breezes observed during CaPE. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 2112–2130.
Atkins, N. T., and T M. Weckwerth, 1995: Observations of the sea-breeze front during CaPE. Part II: Dual-Doppler and aircraft analysis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 944–969.
Atkins, N. T., and C. L. Ziegler, 1998: Observations of the finescale structure of a dryline during VORTEX 95. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 525–550.
Atlas, D., 1960: Radar detection of the sea breeze. J. Meteor., 17, 244–258.
Augustine, J. A., and E Caracena, 1994: Lower-tropospheric precursors to nocturnal MCS development over the central United States. Wea. Forecasting., 9, 116–135.
Austin, G. R., R. M. Rauber, H. T. Ochs III, and L. J. Miller, 1996: Trade-wind clouds and Hawaiian rainbands. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 2126–2151.
Baker, R. D., B. H. Lynn, A. Boone, W.-K. Tao, and J. Simpson, 2001: The influence of soil moisture, coastline curvature, and land-breeze circulations on sea-breeze-initiated precipitation. J. Hydrometeor., 2, 193–211.
Balaji, V., and T. L. Clark, 1988: Scale selection in locally forced convective fields and the initiation of deep cumulus. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 3188–3211.
Banta, R. M., and C. B. Schaaf, 1987: Thunderstorm genesis zones in the Colorado Rocky Mountains as determined by traceback of geosynchronous satellite images. Mon. Wea. Rev., 115, 463–476.
Barnes, G. M., and K. Sieckman, 1984: The environment of fast- and slow-moving tropical mesoscale convective cloud lines. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 1782–1794.
Bartels, D. L., and R. A. Maddox, 1991: Midlevel cyclonic vortices generated by mesoscale convective systems. Mon. Wea. Rev., 119, 104–118.
Bartels, D. L., J. M. Brown, and E. J. Tollerud, 1997: Structure of a midtro-pospheric vortex induced by a mesoscale convective system. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 193–211.
Bernardet, L. R., and W. R. Cotton, 1998: Multiscale evolution of a derecho-producing mesoscale convective system. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 2991–3015.
Biggerstaff, M. I., and R. A. Houze Jr., 1991: Kinematic and precipitation structure of the 10–11 June 1985 squall line. Mon. Wea. Rev., 119, 3034–3065.
Bluestein, H. B., and M. H. Jain, 1985: Formation of mesoscale lines of precipitation: Severe squall lines in Oklahoma during the spring. J. Atmos. Sci., 42, 1711–1732.
Bluestein, H. B., and S. S. Parker, 1993: Modes of isolated, severe convective storm formation along the dryline. Mon. Wea. Rev., 121, 1354 1372.
Bluestein, H. B., and M. L. Weisman, 2000: The interaction of numerically sim-ulated supercells initiated along lines. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 3128–3149.
Bluestein, H. B., and R M Wakimoto, 2003: Mobile radar observations of severe convective systems. Radar and Atmospheric Science: A Collection of Essays in Honor of David Atlas, Meteor. Monogr., No. 52, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 105–136.
Bluestein, H. B., E. W. McCaul Jr., G. P. Byrd, and G. R. Woodall, 1988: Mobile sounding observations of a tornadic storm near the dryline: The Canadian, Texas, storm of 7 May 1986. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 1790–1804.
Bluestein, H. B., R. L. Walko, and R. P. Davies-Jones, 1990: An observational study of splitting convective clouds. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 1359–1370.
Bosart, L. E, W. E. Bracken, and A. Seimon, 1998: A study of cyclone mesoscale structure with emphasis on a large-amplitude inertia-gravity wave. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 1497–1527.
Braun, S. A., and R. A. Houze Jr., 1997: The evolution of the 1011 June 1985 PRE-STORM squall line: Initiation, development of rear inflow, and dissipation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 478–504.
Braun, S. A., and B. F. Smull, 1997: Airborne dual-Doppler observations of an intense frontal system approaching the Pacific northwest coast. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 3131–3156.
Brooks, H. E., and R. B. Wilhelmson, 1993: Hodograph curvature and updraft intensity in numerically modeled supercells. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 1824–1833.
Brown, S. A., J. D. Locatelli, and P. V. Hobbs, 1998: Organization of precipitation along cold fronts. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 124, 649–652.
Brown, S. A., M. T Stoelinga, and P. V. Hobbs, 1999: Numerical mod-eling of precipitation cores on cold fronts. J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 1175–1196.
Browning, K. A., 1985: Conceptual models of precipitating systems. Meteor. Mag., 114, 293–319.
Browning, K. A., 1990: Organization and internal structure of synoptic and me-soscale precipitation systems in midlatitudes. Radar in Meteorology, D. Atlas, Ed., Amer. Meteor. Soc., 433–460.
Browning, K. A., 2003: Mesoscale substructure of extratropical cyclones ob-served by radar. Radar and Atmospheric Science: A Collection of Essays in Honor of David Atlas, Meteor. Monogr., No. 52, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 7–32.
Browning, K. A., and N. M. Roberts, 1996: Variation of frontal and precipitation structure along a cold front. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 122, 1845–1872.
Businger, S., W. H. Bauman, and G. F. Watson, 1991: The development of the Piedmont front and associated outbreak of severe weather on 13 March 1986. Mon. Wea. Rev., 119, 2224–2251.
Byers, H. R., and R. R. Braham Jr., 1949: The Thunderstorm. U.S. Government Printing Office, 287 pp.
Carbone, R. E., 1982: Severe frontal rainband. Part 1: Stormwide dynamic structure. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 258–279.
Carbone, R. E., J. W. Conway, N. A. Crook, and M. W. Moncrieff, 1990a: The generation and propagation of a nocturnal squall line. Part I: Observations and implications for mesoscale predictability. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 26–49.
Carbone, R. E., and Coauthors, 1990b: Convective dynamics: Panel report. Ra-dar in Meteorology, D. Atlas, Ed., Amer. Meteor. Soc., 391400.
Carbone, R. E., W. A. Cooper, and W. C. Lee, 1995: On the forcing of flow reversal along the windward slopes of Hawaii. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 3416–3480.
Carbone, R. E., J. D. Tuttle, W. A. Cooper, V. Grubisic, and W. C. Lee, 1998: Trade wind rainfall near the windward coast of Hawaii. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 2847–2863.
Carbone, R. E., J. W. Wilson, T D. Keenan, and J. M. Hacker, 2000: Tropical island convection in the absence of significant topography. Part I: Life cycle of diurnally forced convection. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 3459–3480.
Charba, J., 1974: Application of gravity current model to analysis of squall-line gust front. Mon. Wea. Rev., 102, 140–156.
Chin, H.-N. S., and R. B. Wilhelmson, 1998: Evolution and structure of tropical squall line elements within a moderate CAPE and strong low-level jet environment. J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 3089–3133.
Chong, M., and O. Bousquet, 1999: A mesovortex within a near-equatorial mesoscale convective system during TOGA COARE. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 1145–1156.
Christian, T W., and R. M. Wakimoto, 1989: The relationship between radar reflectivities and clouds associated with horizontal roll convection on 8 August 1982. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117, 1530–1544.
Church, C., D. Burgess, C. Doswell, and R. Davies-Jones, Eds., 1993: The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards, Geophys. Monogr., No. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 637 pp.
Colman, B. R., 1990: Thunderstorms above frontal surfaces in environments without positive CAPE. Part II: Organization and instability mechanisms. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 1123–1144.
Crawford, T. M., and H. B. Bluestein, 1997: Characteristics of dryline passage during COPS-91. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 463–477.
Crook, N. A., 1996: Sensitivity of moist convection forced by boundary layer processes to low-level thermodynamic fields. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 1768–1785.
Crook, N. A., T. L. Clark, and M. W. Moncrieff, 1991: The Denver Cyclone. Part II: Interaction with the convective boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 2109–2126.
Dailey, P. S., and R. G. Fovell, 1999: Numerical simulation of the interaction between the sea-breeze front and horizontal convective rolls. Part I: Offshore ambient flow. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 858–878.
Davis, C. A., and M. L. Weisman, 1994: Balanced dynamics of mesoscale vortices produced in simulated convective systems. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 2005–2030.
Doswell, C. A., III, H. E. Brooks, and R. A, Maddox, 1996: Flash flood forecasting: An ingredients-based methodology. Wea. Forecasting, 11, 560–581.
Droegemeier, K. K., and R. B. Wilhelmson, 1985: Three-dimensional numerical modeling of convection produced by interacting thunderstorm outflows. Part I: Control simulation and low-level moisture variation. J. Atmos. Sci., 42, 2381–2403.
Eliassen, A., 1962: On the vertical circulation in frontal zones. Geophys. Publ., 27, 1–15.
Emanuel, K. A., 1986: Some dynamical aspects of precipitating convection. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 2183–2198.
Emanuel, K. A., 1994: Atmospheric Convection. Oxford University Press, 580 pp.
Evans, J. S., and C. A. Doswell III, 2001: Examination of derecho environments using proximity soundings. Wea. Forecasting, 16, 329–342.
Fankhauser, J. C., N. A. Crook, J, Tuttle, L. J. Miller, and C. G. Wade, 1995: Initiation of deep convection along boundary layer convergence lines in a semitropical environment. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 291–313.
Fletcher, J. 0., 1990: Early developments of weather radar during World War II. Radar in Meteorology, D. Atlas, Ed., Amer. Meteor. Soc., 3–6.
Fovell, R. G., and P. S. Dailey, 2001: Numerical simulation of the interaction between the sea-breeze front and horizontal convective rolls. Part II: Alongshore ambient flow. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 2057–2072.
Fritsch, J. M., J. D. Murphy, and J. S. Kain, 1994: Warm core vortex amplification over land. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1780–1807.
Fujita, T. T., 1978: Manual of downburst identification for project Nimrod. Satellite and Mesometeorology Res. Pap. 156, Dept. of Geophysical Sciences, University of Chicago, 104 pp. [NTIS PB-286048. 1
Gallus, W. A., Jr., and R. H. Johnson, 1995: The dynamics of circulations within the trailing stratiform regions of squall lines. Part II: Influence of the convective line and ambient environment. J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 2188–2211.
Garstang, M., and H. J. Cooper, 1981: The role of near surface outflow in maintaining convective activity. Proc. Nowcasting-I Symp., Copenhagen, Denmark, European Space Agency, 161–168.
Goff, R. C., 1976: Vertical structure of thunderstorm outflows. Mon. Wea. Rev., 104, 1429–1440.
Grady, R. L., and J. Verlinde, 1997: Triple Doppler analysis of a discretely propagating, long-lived, high-plains squall line. J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 2729–2748.
Grossman, R. L., 1982: An analysis of vertical velocity spectra ob-tained in the BOMEX fair-weather, trade-wind boundary layer. Bound.-Layer Meteor., 23, 323–357.
Hane, C. E., and D. P. Jorgensen, 1995: Dynamic aspects of a distinctly three-dimensional mesoscale convective system. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 3194–3214.
Hane, C. E., C. J. Kessinger, and P S. Ray, 1987: The Oklahoma squall line of 19 May 1977. Part II: Mechanisms for maintenance of the region of strong convection. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 2866–2886.
Hane, C. E., C. L. Ziegler, and H. B. Bluestein, 1993: Investigation of the dryline and convective storms initiated along the dryline: Field experiments during COPS-91. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 74, 2133–2145.
Hane, C. E., H. B. Bluesein, T. M. Crawford, M. E. Baldwin, and R. M. Rabin, 1997: Severe thunderstorm development in relation to along-dryline variability: A case study. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 231–251.
Hane, C. E., M. E. Baldwin, H. B. Bluestein, T. M. Crawford, and R. M. Rabin, 2001: A case study of severe storm development along a dryline within a synoptically active environment. Part I: Dry-line motion and an Eta Model forecast. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 2183–2204.
R. M. Rabin, T. M. Crawford, H. B. Bluestein, and M. E.
Baldwin, 2002: A case study of severe storm development along a dryline within a synoptically active environment. Part II: Multiple boundaries and convection initiation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 900–920.
Hertzman, O., and P. V. Hobbs, 1988: The mesoscale and microscale structure and organization of clouds and precipitation in mid-latitude cyclones. Part XIV: Three-dimensional airflow and vorticity budget of rainbands in a warm occlusion. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 893–914.
Hjelmfelt, M. R., 1990: Numerical study of the influence of environmental conditions on lake-effect snowstorms over Lake Michigan. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 138–150.
Hobbs, P V., and P. O. G. Persson, 1982: The mesoscale and microscale structure and organization of clouds and precipitation in mid-latitude cyclones. Part V: The substructure of narrow cold frontal rainbands. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 280–295.
Houze, R. A., Jr., 1981: Structure of atmospheric precipitation systems—A global survey. Radio Sci., 16, 671–689.
Houze, R. A., and P. V. Hobbs, 1982: Organization and structure of precip-itating cloud systems. Advances in Geophysics, Vol. 24, Academic Press, 225–315.
Houze, R. A., S. A. Rutledge, M. I. Biggerstaff, and B. F. Smull, 1989: In-terpretation of Doppler weather radar displays of midlatitude mesoscale convective system. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 70, 608619.
Houze, R. A., B. F. Smull, and P. Dodge, 1990: Mesoscale organization of springtime rainstorms in Oklahoma. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 613–654.
Intrieri, J. M., A. J. Bedard, and R. M. Hardesty, 1990: Details of colliding thunderstorm outflows as observed by Doppler lidar. J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 1081–1098.
Johns, R. H., and W. D. Hirt, 1987: Derechos: Widespread convec-tively induced windstorms. Wea. Forecasting, 2, 32–49.
Johns, R. H., J. M. Davies, and P. W. Leftwich, 1993: Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. 2: Variations in the combinations of wind and instability parameters. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards, Geophys. Monogr., No. 79, Amer. Geophys. Union, 583–590.
Joly, A., and Coauthors, 1997: The Fronts and Atlantic Storm Track Experiment (FASTEX): Scientific objectives and experimental design. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 78, 1917–1940.
Jorgensen, D. P., and B. E Smull, 1993: Mesovortex circulations seen by airborne Doppler radar within a bow-echo mesoscale con-vective system. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 74, 2146–2157.
Jorgensen, D. P., and M. A. LeMone, 1989: Vertical velocity characteristics of oceanic convection. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 621–644.
Jorgensen, D. P., T. Matejka, and J. D. DuGranrut, 1996: Multi-beam techniques for deriving wind fields from airborne Doppler radars. J. Meteor. Atmos. Phys., 59, 83–104.
Jorgensen, D. P., M. A. LeMone, and S. B. Trier, 1997: Structure and evolution of the 22 February 1993 TOGA COARE squall line: Aircraft observations of precipitation, circulation, and surface energy fluxes. J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 1961–1985.
Jorgensen, D. P., Z. Pu, P. O. G. Persson, and W-K. Tao, 2003: Variations associated with cores and gaps of a pacific narrow cold frontal rainband. Mon. Wea. Rev. in press.
Joseph, J. H., and R. F. Cahalan, 1990: Nearest neighbor spacing of fair weather cumulus clouds. J. Appl. Meteor., 29, 793–805.
Kessinger, C. J., and C. K. Mueller, 1991: Background studies and nowcasting Florida thunderstorm activity in preparation for the CaPOW forecast experiment. Preprints, 25th Conf. on Radar Meteorology, Paris, France, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 67–70.
Kingsmill, D. E., 1995: Convection initiation associated with a sea-breeze front, a gust front, and their collision. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 2913–2933.
Kingsmill, D. E., and R. M. Wakimoto, 1991: Kinematic, dynamic, and ther-modynamic analysis of a weakly sheared severe thunderstorm over northern Alabama. Mon. Wea. Rev., 119, 262–297.
Knupp, K. R., B. Geerts, and S. J. Goodman, 1998: Analysis of a small, vigorous mesoscale convective system in a low-shear environment. Part I: Formation, radar echo structure, and lightning behavior. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 1812–1836.
Koch, S. E., and J. McCarthy, 1982: The evolution of an Oklahoma dryline. Part II: Boundary layer forcing of mesoconvective systems. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 237–257.
Koch, S. E., and C. A. Ray, 1997: Mesoanalysis of summertime convergence zones in central and eastern North Carolina. Wea. Forecasting, 12, 56–77.
Koch, S. E., and W. L. Clark, 1999: A nonclassical cold front observed during COPS-91: Frontal structure and the process of severe storm initiation. J. Atmos. Sci., 56, 2862–2890.
Kuettner, J. P, 1959: The band structure of the atmosphere. Tellus, 11, 267–294.
Kuo, J.-T., and H. D. Orville, 1973: A radar climatology of summertime convective clouds in the Black Hills. J. Appl. Meteor., 12, 357–368.
Lafore, J., and M. W. Moncrieff, 1989: A numerical investigation of the organization and interaction of the convective and stratiform regions of tropical squall lines. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 521–544.
Laing, A. G., and J. M. Fritsch, 2000: The large-scale environments of the global populations of mesoscale convective complexes. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 2756–2776.
Laird, N. F., D. A. R. Kristovich, R. M. Rauber, H. T. Ochs, and L. J. Miller, 1995: The Cape Canaveral sea and river breezes: Kinematic structure and convective initiation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 2942–2956.
Lee, B. D., R. D. Farley, and M. R. Hjelmfelt, 1991: A numerical case study of convection initiation along colliding convergence boundaries in northeast Colorado. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 2350–2366.
Lemaitre, Y., G. Scialom, and P Amayenc, 1989: A cold frontal rainband observed during the LANDES-FRONTS 84 experiment: Mesoscale and small-scale structure inferred from dual-Doppler radar analysis. J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 2215–2235.
LeMone, M. A., 1973: The structure and dynamics of horizontal roll vortices in the planetary boundary layer. J. Atmos. Sci., 30, 1077–1091.
LeMone, M. A., and W. T. Pennell, 1976: The relationship of trade wind cumulus distribution to subcloud layer fluxes and structure. Mon. Wea. Rev., 104, 524–539.
LeMone, M. A., and M. W. Moncrieff, 1994: Momentum and mass transport by convective bands: Comparisons of highly idealized dynamical models to observations. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 281–305.
LeMone, M. A., G. M. Barnes, E. J. Szoke, and E. J. Zipser, 1984: The tilt of the leading edge of mesoscale tropical convective lines. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 510–519.
LeMone, M. A., E. J. Zipser, and S. B. Trier, 1998: The role of environmental shear and thermodynamic conditions in determining the structure and evolution of mesoscale convective systems during TOGA COARE. J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 3493–3518.
Lewis, S. A., M. A. LeMone, and D. P. Jorgensen, 1998: Evolution and dynamics of a late-stage squall line that occurred on 20 February 1993 during TOGA COARE. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 3189–3212.
Ligda, M. G. H., 1956: The radar observation of mature prefrontal squall lines in the Midwestern United States. Swiss Aero Rev., 11 /12, 153–155.
Lindzen, R. S., and K. K. Tung, 1976: Banded convective activity and ducted gravity waves. Mon. Wea. Rev., 104, 1602–1617.
Locatelli, J. D., J. E. Martin, and P. V. Hobbs, 1995: Development and propagation of precipitation cores on cold fronts. Atmos. Res., 38, 177–206.
Locatelli, J. D., M. T. Stoelinga, and P V. Hobbs, 1998: Structure and evolution of winter cyclones in the central United States and their effect of the distribution of precipitation. Part V: Thermodynamic and dual-Doppler radar analysis of a squall line associated with a cold front aloft. Mon. Wea. Rev., 126, 860–875.
Loehrer, S. M., and R. H. Johnson, 1995: Surface pressure and precipitation life cycle characteristics of PRE-STORM mesoscale convective system. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 600–621.
Lopez, R. E., and R. L. Holle, 1986: Diurnal and spatial variability of lightning activity in northeastern Colorado and central Florida during the summer. Mon. Wea. Rev., 114, 1288–1312.
Lucas, C., E. J. Zipser, and M. A. LeMone, 1994: Vertical velocity in oceanic convection off tropical Australia. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 3183–3193.
Mahoney, W. P., 1988: Gust front characteristics and the kinematics associated with interacting thunderstorm outflows. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 1474–1491.
Matejka, T. J., R. A. Houze Jr., and P. V. Hobbs, 1980: Microphysics and dynamics of clouds associated with mesoscale rainbands in extratropical cyclones. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 106, 29–56.
May, P. T., 1999: Thermodynamic and vertical velocity structure of two gust fronts observed with a wind profiler/RASS during MCTEX. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 1796–1807.
McCarthy, J., and S. E. Koch, 1982: The evolution of an Oklahoma dryline. Part I: A mesoscale and subsynoptic-scale analysis. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 225–236.
McCaul, E. W., Jr., 1991: Buoyancy and shear characteristics of hurricane tornado environments. Mon. Wea. Rev., 119, 1954–1978.
McCaul, E. W., and M. L. Weisman, 1996: Simulations of shallow supercell storms in landfalling hurricane environments. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 408–429.
McCaul, E. W., and M. L. Weisman, 2001: The sensitivity of simulated su-percell structure and intensity to variations in the shapes of environmental buoyancy and shear profiles. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 664–687.
Menard, R. D., and J. M. Fritsch, 1989: A mesoscale convective complex-generated inertially stable warm core vortex. Mon. Wea. Rev., 117, 1237–1261.
Moncrieff, M. W., and M. J. Miller, 1976: The dynamics and simulation of tropical cumulonimbus and squall lines. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 102, 373–394.
Mueller, C. K., and R. E. Carbone, 1987: Dynamics of a thunderstorm outflow. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 1879–1898.
Neumann, J., 1951: Land breezes and nocturnal thunderstorms. J. Meteor., 8, 60–67.
Nicholls, M. E., R. A. Pielke, and W. R. Cotton, 1991: Thermally forced gravity waves in an atmosphere at rest. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 1869–1884.
Parker, M. D., and R. H. Johnson, 2000: Organizational modes of midlatitude mesoscale convective systems. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 3413–3436.
Parsons, D. B., C. G. Mohr, and T. Gal-Chen, 1987: A severe frontal rainband. Part III: Derived thermodynamic structure. J. Atmos. Sci., 44, 1615–1631.
Parsons, D. B., B. F. Smull, and D. K. Lilly, 1990: Mesoscale organization and processes: Panel report. Radar in Meteorology, D. Atlas, Ed., Amer. Meteor. Soc., 461–476.
Parsons, D. B., M. A. Shapiro, R. M. Hardesty, R. J. Zamora, and J. M. Intrieri, 1991: The finescale structure of a west Texas dryline. Mon. Wea. Rev., 119, 1242–1258.
Pielke, R. A., 1974: A three-dimensional numerical model of the sea-breezes over south Florida. Mon. Wea. Rev., 102, 115–139.
Pielke, R. A., and Y. Mahrer, 1978: Verification analysis of the University of Virginia three-dimensional mesoscale model prediction over south Florida for 1 July 1973. Mon. Wea. Rev., 106, 1568–1589.
Przybylinski, R. W., 1995: The bow echo: Observations, numerical simulations, and severe weather detection methods. Wea. Forecasting, 10, 203–218.
Purdom, J. F. W., 1976: Some uses of high-resolution GOES imagery in the mesoscale forecasting of convection and its behavior. Mon. Wea. Rev., 104, 1474–1483.
Purdom, J. F. W., 1982: Subjective interpretations of geostationary satellite data for nowcasting. Nowcasting, K. Browning, Ed., Academic Press, 149–166.
Purdom, J. F. W., and K. Marcus, 1982: Thunderstorm trigger mechanisms over the southeast U.S. Preprints, 12th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, San Antonio, TX, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 487–488.
Rao, P. A., H. E. Fuelberg, and K. K. Droegemeier, 1999: High-resolution modeling of the Cape Canaveral area land-water circulations and associated features. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 1808 1821.
Ray, P. S., 1990: Convective dynamics. Radar in Meteorology, D. Atlas, Ed., Amer. Meteor. Soc., 348–390.
Raymond, D. J., and M. H. Wilkening, 1982: Flow and mixing in New Mexico mountain cumuli. J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 2211–2228.
Redelsperger, J.-L., and T. L. Clark, 1990: The initiation and horizontal scale selection of convection over gently sloping terrain. J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 516–541.
Reinking, R. E, R. J. Doviak, and R. O. Gilmer, 1981: Clear-air roll vortices and turbulent motions as detected with an airborne gust probe and dual-Doppler radar. J. Appl. Meteor., 20, 678–685.
Rhea, J. O., 1966: A study of thunderstorm formation along drylines. J. Appl. Meteor., 5, 58–63.
Rotunno, R., J. B. Klemp, and M. L. Weisman, 1988: A theory for strong, long-lived squall lines. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 463–485.
Roux, E, V. Marécal, and D. Hauser, 1993: The 12/13 January 1988 narrow cold-frontal rainband observed during MFDP/FRONTS 87. Part I: Kinematics and thermodynamics. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 951–974.
Rutledge, S. A., 1986: A diagnostic modeling study of the stratiform region associated with a tropical squall line. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 1356–1377.
Sanders, E, and L. E Bosart, 1985: Mesoscale structure in the megalopolitan snowstorm of 11–12 February 1983. Part I: Fronto-genetical forcing and symmetric instability. J. Atmos. Sci., 42, 1050–1061.
Sanders, E, and D. O. Blanchard, 1993: The origin of a severe thunderstorm in Kansas on 10 May 1985. Mon. Wea. Rev., 121, 133–149.
Schaaf, C. B., J. Wurman, and R. M. Banta, 1988: Thunderstorm-producing terrain features. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 69, 272–277.
Schaefer, J. T., 1986: The dryline. Mesoscale Meteorology and Forecasting, P. S. Ray, Ed., Amer. Meteor. Soc., 549–572.
Schiesser, H. H., R. A. Houze Jr., and H. Huntrieser, 1995: The mesoscale structure of severe precipitation systems in Switzerland. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 2070–2097.
Schlesinger, R. E., 1982: Three-dimensional numerical modeling of convective storms: A review of milestones and challenges. Preprints, 12th Conf. on Severe Local Storms, San Antonio, TX, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 506–515.
Scott, J. D., and S. A. Rutledge, 1995: Doppler radar observations of an asymmetric mesoscale convective system and associated vortex couplet. Mon. Wea. Rev., 123, 3437–3457.
Segal, M., and R. W. Arritt, 1992: Nonclassical mesoscale circulations caused by surface sensible heat-flux gradients. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 73, 1593–1604.
Seitter, K. L., 1986: A numerical study of atmospheric density current motion including the effect of condensation. J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 3068–3076.
Sha, W., T. Kawamura, and H. Ueda, 1991: A numerical study on sea/land breezes as a gravity current: Kelvin—Helmholtz billows and inland penetration of the sea-breeze front. J. Atmos. Sci., 48, 1649–1665.
Shields, M. T., R. M. Rauber, and M. K. Ramamurthy, 1991: Dynamical forcing and mesoscale organization of precipitation bands in a Midwest winter cyclonic storm. Mon. Wea. Rev., 119, 936–964.
Simpson, J. E., 1994: Sea Breeze and Local Wind. Cambridge University Press, 234 pp.
Skamarock, W. C., M. L. Weisman, and J. B. Klemp, 1994: Three-dimensional evolution of simulated long-lived squall lines. J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 2563–2584.
Smolarkiewicz, P. K., R. M. Rasmussen, and T. L. Clark, 1988: On the dynamics of Hawaiian cloud bands: Island forcing. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 1872–1905.
Smull, B. F., 1995: Convectively-induced mesoscale weather systems in the tropical and warm-season midlatitude atmosphere. Rev. Geophys., 33 (Suppl.), 897–906.
Smull, B. F., and R. A. Houze Jr., 1985: A midlatitude squall line with a trailing region of stratiform rain: Radar and satellite observations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 113, 117–133.
Smull, B. F., and J. A. Augustine, 1993: Multiscale analysis of a mature mesoscale convective complex. Mon. Wea. Rev., 121, 103–132.
Steenburgh, W. J., S. F. Halvorson, and D. J. Onton, 2000: Climatology of lake-effect snowstorms of the Great Salt Lake. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 709–727.
Stensrud, D. J., 1996a: Effects of persistent, midlatitude mesoscale regions of convection on the large-scale environment during the warm season. J. Atmos. Sci., 53, 3503–3527.
Stensrud, D. J., 1996b: Importance of low-level jets to climate: A review. J. Climate, 9, 1698–1711.
Stensrud, D. J., and R. A. Maddox, 1988: Opposing mesoscale circulations: A case study. Wea. Forecasting, 3, 189–204.
Stensrud, D. J., and J. M. Fritsch, 1994: Mesoscale convective systems in weak-ly forced large-scale environments. Part II: Generation of mesoscale initiation condition. Mon. Wea. Rev., 122, 2068–2083.
Stensrud, D. J., G. S. Manikin, E. Rogers, and K. E. Mitchell, 1999: Importance of cold pools to NCEP mesoscale Eta Model forecasts. Wea. Forecasting, 14, 650–670.
Szoke, E. J., M. L. Weisman, J. M. Brown, E Caracena, and T. W. Schlatter, 1984: A subsynoptic analysis of the Denver tornadoes of 3 June 1981. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 790–808.
Szumowski, M. J., R. M. Rauber, H. T. Ochs III, and L. J. Miller, 1997: The microphysical structure and evolution of Hawaiian rainband clouds. Part I: Radar observations of rainbands containing high reflectivity cores. J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 369–385.
Thorpe, A. J., M. J. Miller, and M. W. Moncrieff, 1982: Two-dimensional convection in non-constant shear: A model of mid-latitude squall lines. Quart. J. Meteor. Soc., 108, 739–762.
Trier, S. B., W. C. Skamarock, and M. A. LeMone, 1997: Structure and evolution of the 22 February 1993 TOGA COARE squall line: Organizational mechanisms inferred from numerical simulations. J. Atmos. Sci., 54, 386–407.
Trier, S. B., C. A. Davis, and W. C. Skamarock, 2000: Long-lived meso-convective vortices and their environment. Part II: Induced thermodynamic destabilization in idealized simulations. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 3396–3412.
Ulanski, S. L., and M. Garstang, 1978: The role of surface divergence and vorticity in the life cycle of convective rainfall. Part I: Observations and analysis. J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 1047–1062.
Verlinde, J., and W. R. Cotton, 1990: A mesoscale vortex couplet observed in the trailing anvil of a multicellular convective complex. Mon. Wea. Rev., 118, 993–1010.
Wakimoto, R. M., 1982: The life cycle of thunderstorm gust fronts as viewed with Doppler radar and rawinsonde data. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 1060–1082.
Wakimoto, R. M., and N. T. Atkins, 1994: Observations of the sea-breeze front during CaPE. Part I: Single-Doppler, satellite, and cloud pho-togrammetric analysis. Mon. Wea. Rev., 122, 1092–1114.
Wakimoto, R. M., and B. L. Bosart, 2000: Airborne radar observations of a cold front during FASTEX. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 2447–2470.
Watson, I. W., and D. O. Blanchard, 1984: The relationship between total area divergence and convective precipitation in south Florida. Mon. Wea. Rev., 112, 673–685.
Weckwerth, T. M., 2000: The effect of small-scale moisture variability on thunderstorm initiation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 128, 4017–4030.
Weckwerth, T. M., and R. M. Wakimoto, 1992: The initiation and organization of convective cells atop a cold-air outflow boundary. Mon. Wea. Rev., 120, 2169–2187.
Weckwerth, T. M., J. W. Wilson, and R. M. Wakimoto, 1996: Thermodynamic variability within the convective boundary layer due to horizontal convective rolls. Mon. Wea. Rev., 124, 769–784.
Weckwerth, T. M., and N. A. Crook, 1997: Horizontal convective rolls: Determining the environmental conditions supporting their existence and characteristics. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 505–526.
Weisman, M. L., 1993: The genesis of severe, long-lived bow echoes. J. Atmos. Sci., 50, 645–670.
Weisman, M. L., 2001: Bow echoes: A tribute to T. T. Fujita. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 82, 97–116.
Weisman, M. L., and J. B. Klemp, 1982: The dependence of numerically sim-ulated convective storms on vertical wind shear and buoyancy. Mon. Wea. Rev., 110, 504–520.
Weisman, M. L., and C. A. Davis, 1998: Mechanisms for the generation of mesoscale vortices within quasi-linear convective systems. J. Atmos. Sci., 55, 2603–2622.
Weisman, M. L., J. B. Klemp, and R. Rotunno, 1988: Structure and evolution of numerically simulated squall lines. J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 1990–2013.
Weiss, C. C., and H. B. Bluestein, 2002: Airborne pseudo-dual-Doppler analysis of a dryline-outflow boundary intersection. Mon. Wea. Rev., 130, 1207–1226.
Wilson, J. W., and R. Carbone, 1984: Nowcasting with Doppler radar: The forecaster–computer relationship. Nowcasting II, K. Browning, Ed., European Space Agency, 177–186.
Wilson, J. W., and W. E. Schreiber, 1986: Initiation of convective storms at radar-observed boundary-layer convergence lines. Mon. Wea. Rev., 114, 2516–2536.
Wilson, J. W., and C. K. Mueller, 1993: Nowcasts of thunderstorm initiation and evolution. Wea. Forecasting, 8, 113–131.
Wilson, J. W., and D. L. Megenhardt, 1997: Thunderstorm initiation, orga-nization, and lifetime associated with Florida boundary layer convergence lines. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 1507–1525.
Wilson, J. W., J. A. Moore, G. B. Foote, B. Martner, A. R. Rodi, T. Uttal, and J. M. Wilczak, 1988: Convection initiation and downburst experiment (CINDE). Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 69, 1328–1348.
Wilson, J. W., G. B. Foote, N. A. Crook, J. C. Fankhauser, C. G. Wade, J. D. Tuttle, C. K. Mueller, and S. K. Krueger, 1992: The role of boundary layer convergence zones and horizontal rolls in the initiation of thunderstorms: A case study. Mon. Wea. Rev., 120, 1785–1815.
Wilson, J. W., T. M. Weckwerth, J. Vivekanandan, R. M. Wakimoto, and R. W. Russell, 1994: Boundary layer clear-air radar echoes: Origin of echoes and accuracy of derived winds. J. Atmos. Oceanic Technol., 11, 1184–1206.
Wilson, J. W., N. A. Crook, C. K. Mueller, J. Sun, and M. Dixon, 1998: Nowcasting thunderstorms: A status report. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 79, 2079–2099.
Wilson, J. W., R. E. Carbone, J. D. Tuttle, and T. D. Keenan, 2001: Tropical island convection in the absence of significant topography. Part II: Nowcasting storm evolution. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 1637–1655.
Yu, C.-K., B. J.-D. Jou, and B. F. Smull, 1999: Formative stage of a long-lived mesoscale vortex observed by airborne Doppler radar. Mon. Wea. Rev., 127, 838–857.
Zhang, D. L., and J. M. Fritsch, 1988: A numerical investigation of a convectively generated, inertially stable, extratropical warm-core mesovortex over land. Part I: Structure and evolution. Mon. Wea. Rev., 116, 2660–2687.
Ziegler, C. L., and E. N. Rasmussen, 1998: The initiation of moist convection at the dryline: Forecasting issues from a case study perspective. Wea. Forecasting, 13, 1106–1131.
Ziegler, C. L., T J. Lee, and R. A. Pielke Sr., 1997: Convection initiation at the dryline: A modeling study. Mon. Wea. Rev., 125, 1001–1026.
Zipser, E. J., 1977: Mesoscale and convective-scale downdrafts as distinct components of squall-line circulation. Mon. Wea. Rev., 105, 1568–1589.
Zipser, E. J., 1982: Use of a conceptual model of the life cycle of mesoscale convective systems to improve very-short-range forecasts. Now-casting, K. Browning, Ed., Academic Press, 191–204.
Zipser, E. J., and M. A. LeMone, 1980: Cumulonimbus vertical velocity events in GATE. Part II: Synthesis and model core structure. J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 2458–2469.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2003 American Meteorological Society
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Jorgensen, D.P., Weckwerth, T.M. (2003). Forcing and Organization of Convective Systems. In: Wakimoto, R.M., Srivastava, R. (eds) Radar and Atmospheric Science: A Collection of Essays in Honor of David Atlas. Meteorological Monographs. American Meteorological Society, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-878220-36-3_4
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-878220-36-3_4
Publisher Name: American Meteorological Society, Boston, MA
Online ISBN: 978-1-878220-36-3
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive