Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sleep Disorders

  • Chapter
The Medical Basis of Psychiatry

  • 3361 Accesses

Abstract

Disturbances of sleep are commonly seen in many of the DSM-IV Axis I psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, psychiatric symptoms are commonly experienced in association with sleep disorders. This chapter reviews some basic physiology of sleep-wake regulation as well as the most common sleep disorders of importance to the practicing psychiatrist. Included are insomnia, restless legs syndrome, obstructive sleep apnea, narcolepsy, idiopathic and other hypersomnias, and parasomnias such as sleepwalking/sleep terrors and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder. In each case, diagnostic criteria are described, based both on the American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, 4th edition, text revision (DSM-IV-TR) and the International Classification of Sleep Disorders, 2nd edition (ICSD-2). Discussions of epidemiology, clinical features, typical case examples, laboratory findings, course, differential diagnosis, etiology, and treatment considerations will enable the reader to recognize these disorders in their patients and to facilitate their treatment.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed, text revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Ross R, Ball W, Sullivan K, Caroff S. Sleep disturbance as the hallmark of posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1989;146(6):697–707.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Buysse D, Frank E, Lowe K, Cherry C, Kupfer D. Electroencephalographic sleep correlates of episode and vulnerability to recurrence in depression. Biol Psychiatry 1997;41(4):406–418.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Grunhaus L, Shipley J, Eiser A, et al. Shortened REM latency post-ECT is associated with rapid recurrence of depressive symptomatology. Biol Psychiatry 1994;36(4):214–222.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Agargun M, Kara H, Solmaz M. Sleep disturbances and suicidal behavior in patients with major depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1997;58:249–251.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Thase M, Simons A, Reynolds C. Abnormal electroencephalographic sleep profiles in major depression: association with response to cognitive behavior therapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996;53:99–108.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Wehr T. Improvement of depression and triggering of mania by sleep deprivation. JAMA 1992;267(4):548–551.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Stickgold R. Sleep-dependent memory consolidation. Nature 2005;437:1272–1278.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Van Dongen H, Maislin G, Mullington J, Dinges D. Neurobehavioral functions and sleep physiology from chronic sleep restriction and total sleep deprivation. Sleep 2003;26(2): 117–126.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Hobson J. Sleep is of the brain, by the brain and for the brain. Nature 2005;437:1254–1256.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Rechtschaffen A, Kales A. A manual of standardized terminology, techniques and scoring systems for sleep stages of human subjects. Los Angeles, CA: Brain Information Service/Brain Research Institute; 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Von Economo C. Sleep as a problem of localization. J Nerv Ment Dis 1930;71:249–259.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Moruzzi G, Magoun H. Brain stem reticular formation and activation of the EEG. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurol 1949; 1:455–473.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Saper C, Scammell T, Lu J. Hypothalamic regulation of sleep and circadian rhythms. Nature 2005;437:1257–1262.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. American Academy of Sleep Medicine. International classification of sleep disorders, 2nd ed: Diagnostic and coding manual. 2 ed. Westchester, IL: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Sateia M, Doghramji K, Hauri P, Morin C. Evaluation of chronic insomnia. Sleep 2000;23(2):1–66.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Ohayon J. Epidemiology of insomnia: what we know and what we still need to learn. Sleep Med Rev 2002;6(2):97–111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Hohagen F, Rink K, Kappler C. Prevalence and treatment of insomnia in general practice: a longitudinal study. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1993;242:329–336.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Schramm E, Hohagen F, Kappler C, Grasshof U, Berger M. Mental comorbidity of chronic insomnia in general practice attenders using DSM-III-R. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1995;91(1): 10–17.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Gallup Organization. Sleep in America. In. Princeton, NJ: Gallup Organization; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Bixler E, Kales A, Soldatos C, Kales J, Healey S. Prevalence of sleep disorders in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. Am J Psychiatry 1979;136:1257–1262.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Mellinger G, Balter M, Uhlenhuth E. Insomnia and its treatment: Prevalence and correlates. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;42:225–232.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Gislason T, Reynisdottir H, Kritbjarnarson B, Benediktsdotter. Sleep habits and sleep disturbances among the elderly—an epidemiological survey. J Intern Med 1993;234:31–39.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Hohagen F, Kappler C, Schramm E, et al. Prevalence of insomnia in elderly general practice attenders and the current treatment modalities. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1994;90(2): 102–108.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Carney C, Edinger J. Identifying critical beliefs about sleep in primary insomnia. Sleep 2006;29(3):342–350.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Stepanski E, Zorick F, Roehrs T, et al. Daytime sleepiness in patients with chronic insomnia compared with asymptomatic control subjects. Sleep 1988;11:54–60.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Zammit G. Subjective ratings of the characteristics and sequelae of good and poor sleep in normals. J Clin Psychol 1988;44: 123–130.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Stepanski E, Koshorek G, Zorick F, Glinn M, Roehrs T, Roth T. Characteristics of individuals who do or do not seek treatment for chronic insomnia. Psychosomatics 1989;30:421–427.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Evans L. Sundown syndrome in institutionalized elderly. J Am Geriatric Soc 1987;35:101–108.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Prinz P, Vitaliano P, Vitiello M. Sleep, EEG, and mental function changes in senile dementia of the Alzheimer’s type. Neurobiol Aging 1982;3:361–370.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Smith M, Ellgring H, Oertel W, et al. Sleep disturbances in Parkinson’s disease: relationship to behavioral problems. J Am Geriatric Soc 1997;45(2):194–199.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Rebok G, Rovner B, Folstein M. Sleep disturbance and Alzheimer’s disease: relationship to behavioral problems. Aging 1991;3(2):193–196.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. van Hilten J, Weggeman M, van der Velda E, Kerhof G, van Dijk, JG, Roos R. Sleep, excessive daytime sleepiness and fatigue in Parkinson’s disease. J Neural Transm 1993;5(3): 235–244.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Roehrs T, Zorick F, Sicklesteel J, et al. Age-related sleep–wake disorders at a sleep disorders center. J Am Geriatric Soc 1983;31:364–370.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Reynolds C, Coble P, Black R, Holyer B, Carroll R, Kupfer D. Sleep disturbances in a series of elderly patients. J Am Geriatric Soc 1980;28:164–169.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Littner M, Hirshkowitz M, Kramer M, et al. Practice parameters for using polysomnography to evaluate insomnia: an update. Sleep 2003;26:754–760.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Perlis M, Merica H, Smith M, et al. Beta EEG activity and insomnia. Sleep Med Rev 2001;5:363–374.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Krystal A, Edinger J, Wohlgemuth W, et al. NREM sleep EEG frequency spectral correlates of sleep complaints in primary insomnia subtypes. Sleep 2002;25:630–640.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Bonnet M, Arand D. Insomnia, metabolic rate, and sleep restoration. J Intern Med 2003;254:23–31.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Littner M, Kushida C, Anderson W, et al. Practice parameters for the role of actigraphy in the study of sleep and circadian rhythms: an update for 2002. Sleep 2002;26(3): 337–341.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Nofzinger E, Buysse D, Germani A, Price J, Miewald J, Kupfer D. Functional neuroimaging evidence for hyperarousal in insomnia. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:2126–2129.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Sateia M, Nowell P. Insomnia. Lancet 2004;364:1959–1973.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Silber M. Chronic insomnia. N Engl J Med 2005;353(8): 803–810.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Benca R. Diagnosis and treatment of chronic insomnia: a review. Psychiatric Services 2005;56(3):332–343.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Spielman A, Caruso L, Glovinsky P. A behavioural perspective on insomnia treatment. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1987;10: 541–553.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Hauri P, Olmstead E. Childhood-onset insomnia. Sleep 1980;3:59–65.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Regestein Q, Monk T. Delayed sleep phase syndrome: a review of its clinical aspects. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:602–608.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Bastien C, Morin C. Familial incidence of insomnia. J Sleep Res 2000;9:49–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Vgontzas A, Tsigos C, Bixler E, et al. Chronic insomnia and activity of the stress system: a preliminary study. J Psychosom Res 1998;45:21–31.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Ford D, Kamerow D. Epidemiologic study of sleep disturbances and psychiatric disorders: an opportunity for prevention? JAMA 1989;262:1479–1484.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Chang P, Ford D, Mead L, Cooper-Patrick L, Klag M. Insomnia in young men and subsequent depression; the Johns Hopkins precursors study. Am J Epidemiol 1997;146: 105–114.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Breslau N, Roth T, Rosenthal L, Andreski P. Sleep disturbance and psychiatric disorders: a longitudinal epidemiological study of young adults. Biol Psychiatry 1996;39:411–418.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Lugaresi I, Medori R, Montagna P, et al. Fatal familial insomnia and dysautonomia with selective degeneration of thalamic nuclei. N Engl J Med 1986;315:997–1003.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Montagna P. Fatal familial insomnia: a model disease in sleep physiopathology. Sleep Med Rev 2005;9(5):339–353.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Buysse D, Reynolds C, Kupfer D, et al. Clinical diagnoses in 216 insomnia patients using the International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD), DSM-IV and ICD-10 categories: a report from the APA/NIMH DSM-IV field trial. Sleep 1994;17:630–637.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Weyerer S, Dilling H. Prevalence and treatment of insomnia in the community: results from the Upper Bavarian Field Study. Sleep 1991;14:392–398.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Szuba M, Fernando A, Groh-Szuba G. Sleep abnormalities in treatment-resistant mood disorders. In: Amsterdam A, ed. Treatment Resistant Mood Disorders. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Benca R, Obermeyer W, Tisted R, et al. Sleep and psychiatric disorders: a meta-analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;49: 651–668.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Germain A, Nofzinger E, Kupfer D, Buysse D. Neurobiology of non-REM sleep in depression: further evidence for hypofrontality and thalamic dysregulation. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:1856–1863.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Baillargeon L, Demers L, Ladouceur R. Stimulus-control: nonpharmacologic treatment for insomnia. Can Fam Physician 1998;44:73–79.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Bootzin R, Epstein D, Wood J. Stimulus control instructions. In: Hauri P, ed. Case studies in insomnia. New York: Plenum Medical Book; 1991:19–28.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Spielman A, Saskin P, Thorpy M. Treatment of chronic insomnia by restriction of time in bed. Sleep 1987;10:45–56.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Morin C, Hauri P, Espie C, Spielman A, Buysse D, Bootzin R. Nonpharmacologic treatment of chronic insomnia: an American Academy of Sleep Medicine review. Sleep 1999;22: 1134–1156.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Hauri P. Sleep hygiene, relaxation therapy, and cognitive interventions. In: Hauri P, ed. Case Studies in Insomnia. New York: Plenum Medical Book; 1991:65–84.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Summers M, Crisostomo M, Stepanski E. Recent developments in the classification, evaluation, and treatment of insomnia. Chest 2006;130(1):276–286.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Murtagh D, Greenwood K. Identifying effective psychological treatments for insomnia: a meta-analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol 1995;63:79–89.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Espie C, Inglis S, Tessier S, Harvey L. The clinical effectiveness of cognitive behaviour therapy for chronic insomnia: implementation and evaluation of a sleep clinic in general medical practice. Behav Res Ther 2001;39:45–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Edinger J, Wohlgemuth W, Radtke R, Marsh G, Quillian R. Cognitive behavioral therapy for treatment of chronic primary insomnia: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2001; 285:1856–1864.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Jacobs G, Pace-Schott E, Stickgold R, Otto M. Cognitive behavior therapy and pharmacotherapy for insomnia: a randomized controlled trial and direct comparison. Arch Int Med 2004;164:1888–1896.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Smith J, Perlis M, Park A, et al. Comparative meta-analysis of pharmacotherapy and behavior therapy for persistent insomnia. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:5–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Hauri P. Can we mix behavioral therapy with hypnotics when treating insomniacs? Sleep 1997;20:1111–1118.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Parrino L, Terzano M. Polysomnographic effects of hypnotic drugs, a review. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1996;126:1–16.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Kryger M, Steljes D, Pouliot H, Neufeld H, Odynski T. Subjective versus objective evaluation of hypnotic efficacy: experience with zolpidem. Sleep 1991;14(5):399–407.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Nowell P, Mazumdar S, Buysse D, Dew M, Reynolds C, Kupfer D. Benzodiazepines and zolpidem for chronic insomnia: a meta-analysis of treatment efficacy. JAMA 1997;278:2170–2177.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Holbrook A, Crowther R, Lotter A, Cheng C, King D. Meta-analysis of benzodiazepine use in the treatment of insomnia. CMAJ 2000;162:225–233.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Krystal A, Walsh J, Laska E, et al. Sustained efficacy of eszopiclone over 6 months of nightly treatment: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of adults with chronic insomnia. Sleep 2003;26:793–799.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Voshaar R, van Balkom A, Zitman F. Zolpidem is not superior to temazepam with respect to rebound insomnia: a controlled study. Eur Neuropsychopharmachol 2004;14:301–306.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Vogel G, Morris D. The effects of estazolam on sleep, performance, and memory: a long-term sleep laboratory study of elderly insomniacs. J Clin Pharmacol 1992;32:647–651.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Roth T, Roehrs T. A review of the safety profiles of benzodiazepine hypnotics. J Clin Psychiatry 1991;52(Suppl):38–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Rothschild A. Disinhibition, amnestic reactions, and other adverse reactions secondary to triazolam: a review of the literature. J Clin Psychiatry 1992;53(suppl):69–79.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Roth T, Hartse K, Saab P, Piccione P, Kramer M. The effects of flurazepam, lorazepam, and triazolam on sleep and memory. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1980;70:231–237.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Canaday B. Amnesia possibly associated with zolpidem administration. Pharmacotherapy 1996;16:687–689.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Morgenthaler T, Silber M. Amnestic sleep-related eating disorder associated with zolpidem. Sleep Med 2002;3:323–327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Lu M, Shen W. Sleep-related eating disorder induced by risperidone. J Clin Psychiatry 2004;65(2):273–274.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Paquet V, Strul J, Servais L, Pele I, Fossion P. Sleep-related eating disorder induced by olanzapine. J Clin Psychiatry 2002; 63(7):597.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Mendelson W. Effects of flurazepam and zolpidem on the perception of sleep in insomniacs. Sleep 1995;18(2):92–96.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Erman M, Seiden D, Zammit G, Sainati S, Zhang J. An efficacy, safety, and dose-response study of ramelteon in patients with chronic primary insomnia. Sleep Med 2006;7(1):17–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Roth T, Seiden D, Sainati S, Wang-Weigand S, Zhang J, Zee P. Effects of ramelteon on patient-reported sleep latency in older adults with chronic insomnia. Sleep Med 2006;7(4):312–318.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Hirai K, Kita M, Ohta H, et al. Ramelteon (TAK-375) accelerates reentrainment of circadian rhythm after a phase advance of the light-dark cycle in rats. J Biol Rhythms 2005;20(1):27–37.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Walsh J. Drugs used to treat insomnia in 2002: Regulatory-based rather than evidence based medicine. Sleep 2004;27(8): 1441–1442.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Woods J, Katz J, Winger G. Benzodiazepines: use, abuse, and consequences. Pharm Rev 1992;44:151–347.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Golden R, Dawkins K, Nicholas L. Trazodone and nefazodone. In: Schatzberg A, Nemeroff C, eds. The American Psychiatric Textbook of Psychopharmacology, 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2004:315–325.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Parrino L, Spaggiari M, Boselli M, et al. Clinical and polysomnographic effects of trazodone CR in chronic insomnia associated with dysthymia. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1994;116:389–395.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Saletu-Zyhlarz G, Abu-Bakr M, Anderer P, et al. Insomnia in depression: differences in objective and subjective sleep awakening quality to normal controls and acute effects of trazodone. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2002;26: 249–260.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. van Bemmel A, Havermans R, van Diest R. Effects of trazodone on EEG sleep and clinical state in major depression. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1992;107:569–574.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Walsh J, Erman M, Erwin C, et al. Subjective hypnotic efficacy of trazodone and zolpidem in DSM-III-R primary insomnia. Hum Psychopharmacol 1998;13:191–198.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Buysse D, Germain A, Moul D, Nofzinger E. Insomnia. In: Buysse D, ed. Sleep Disorders in Psychiatry. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2005:29–75.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Hendrickse W, Roffwarg H, Grannemann B, et al. The effects of fluoxetine on the polysomnogram of depressed outpatients: a pilot study. Neuropsychopharmacology 1994;10(2):85–91.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Kerkhofs M, Rielaert C, de Maertelaer V, Linkowski P, Czarka M, Mendlewicz J. Fluoxetine in major depression: efficacy, safety and effects on sleep polygraphic variables. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1990;5(4):253–260.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Rush A, Armitage R, Gilin J, et al. Comparative effects of nefazodone and fluoxetine on sleep; in outpatients with major depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry 1998;44:3–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Schenck C, Mahowald M, Kim S, O’Connor K, Hurwitz T. Prominent eye movements during NREM sleep and REM sleep behavior disorder associated with fluoxetine treatment of depression and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Sleep 1992;15(3):226–235.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Nelson J. Tricyclic and tetracyclic drugs. In: Schatzberg A, Nemeroff C, eds. The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychopharmacology, 3d ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2004:207–230.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Feuillade P, Pringuey D, Belugou J. Trimipramine: acute and lasting effects on sleep in healthy and major depressive subjects. J Affect Disord 1992;24:135–145.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Roth T, Zorick F, Wittig R, et al. The effects of doxepin HCl on sleep and depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1982;43: 366–368.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Shipley J, Kupfer D, Griffin S, et al. Comparison of effects of desipramine and amitriptyline on EEG sleep of depressed patients. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1985;85:14–22.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Hajak G, Rodenbeck A, Voderholzer U, et al. Doxepin in the treatment of primary insomnia: a placebo-controlled, double-blind, polysomnographic study. J Clin Pychiatry 2001;62: 453–463.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Hohagen F, Montero R, Weiss E, et al. Treatment of primary insomnia with trimipramine: an alternative to benzodiazepine hypnotics? Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1994;244: 65–72.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Flores B, Schatzberg A. Mirtazapine. In: Schatzberg A, Nemeroff C, eds. The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychopharmacology, 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2004:341–347.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Ruigt G, Kemp B, Groenhout C, et al. Effect of the antidepressant Org 3770 on human sleep. Eur J Clin Parmacol 1990;38:551–554.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Winokur A, Sateia M, Hayes J, et al. Acute effects of mirtazapine on sleep continuity and sleep architecture in depressed patients: a pilot study. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48:75–78.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Kudo Y, Kurihara M. Clinical evaluation of diphenhydramine hydrochloride for the treatment of insomnia in psychiatric patients: a double-blind study. J Clin Psychiatry 1990;30: 1041–1048.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Meuleman J, Nelson R, Clark R. Evaluation of temazepam and diphenhydramine as hypnotics in a nursing home population. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1987;21:716–720.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Rickels K, Morris R, Newman H, et al. Diphenhydramine in insomniac family practice patients: a double-blind study. J Clin Pharmacol 1983;23:234–242.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Richardson G, Roehrs T, Rosenthal L, et al. Tolerance to daytime sedative effects of H1 antihistamines. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2002;22:511–515.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Wetter T, Lauer C, Gillich G, Pollmacher T. The electroencephalographic sleep pattern in schizophrenic patients treated with clozapine or classical antipsychotic drugs. J Psychiat Res 1996;30(6):411–419.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Lee J, Woo J, Meltzer H. Effects of clozapine on sleep measures and sleep-associated changes in growth hormone and cortisol in patients with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res 2001;103: 157–166.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Armitage R, Cole D, Supes T, Ozcan M. Effects of clozapine on sleep in bipolar and schizoaffective disorders. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2004;28:1065–1070.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Cohrs S, Rodenbeck A, Guan Z, et al. Sleep-promoting properties of quetiapine in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004;174:421–429.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Sharpley A, Attenburrow M, Hafizi S, Cowen P. Olanzapine increases slow-wave sleep and sleep continuity in SSRI-resistant depressed patients. J Clin Psychiatry 2005;66(4): 450–454.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Sharpley A, Vassallo C, Cowen P. Olanzapine increases slow-wave sleep: evidence for blockade of central 5-HT2C receptors in vivo. Biol Psychiatry 2000;47:468–470.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Sharpley A, Bhagwagar Z, Hafizi S, Whale W, Gijsman H, Cowen P. Risperidone augmentation decreases rapid eye movement sleep and decreases wake in treatment-resistant depressed patients. J Clin Psychiatry 2003;64(2):192–196.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Ekbom K. Restless legs syndrome. Neurology 1960;10: 868–873.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Allen R, Earley C. Restless legs syndrome: a review of clinical and pathophysiologic features. J Clin Neurophysiol 2001;18:128–147.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Lavigne G, Montplaisir J. Restless legs syndrome and sleep bruxism: prevalence and association among Canadians. Sleep 1994;17:739–743.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Nichols D, Allen R, Grauke J, et al. Restless legs syndrome symptoms in primary care: a prevalence study. Arch Int Med 2003;163:2323–2329.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  126. Phillips B, Young T, Finn L, Asher K, Hening W, Purvis C. Epidemiology of restless legs symptoms in adults. Arch Int Med 2000;160:2137–2141.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Rothdach A, Trenkwalder C, Haberstock J, Keil U, Berger K. Prevalence and risk factors of RLS in an elderly population: the MEMO study. Neurology 2000;54:1064–1068.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Goodman J, Brodie C, Ayida G. Restless leg syndrome in pregnancy. BMJ 1988;297:1101–1102.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Lee K, Zaffke M, Baratte-Beebe K. Restless legs syndrome and sleep disturbance during pregnancy: the role of folate and iron. J Womens Health Gend Based Med 2001;10:335–341.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Hui D, Wong T, Ko F, et al. Prevalence of sleep disturbances in Chinese patients with end-stage renal failure on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 2000;36: 783–788.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Winkelman J, Chertow G, Lazarus J. Restless legs syndrome in end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1996;28:372–378.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Rutkove S, Matheson J, Logigian E. Restless legs syndrome in patients with polyneuropathy. Muscle Nerve 1996;19:670–672.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Earley C. Restless legs syndrome. N Engl J Med 2003;348: 2103–2109.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Silber M, Ehrenburg B, Allen R, et al. An algorithm for the management of restless legs syndrome. Mayo Clin Proc 2004;79(7):916–922.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. O’Keefe S, Gavin K, Lavan J. Iron status and restless legs syndrome in the elderly. Age Ageing 1994;23:200–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Silber M. Calming restless legs (editorial). Sleep 2004;27(5):839–841.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Sun E, Chen C, Ho G, Earley C, Allen R. Iron and the restless legs syndrome. Sleep 1998;21:371–377.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Ulfberg J, Nystrom B. Restless legs syndrome in blood donors. Sleep Med 2004;5(2):115–118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Montplaisir J, Boucher S, Poirier G, Lavigne G, Lapierre O, Lesperance P. Clinical, polysomnographic, and genetic characteristics of restless legs syndrome: a study of 133 patients diagnosed with new standard criteria. Mov Disord 1997;12: 61–65.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Montplaisir J, Boucher S, Nicholas L, et al. Immobilization tests and periodic leg movements in sleep for the diagnosis of restless leg syndrome. Mov Disord 1998;13(2):324–329.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Kazenwadel J, Pollmacher T, Trenkwalder C, et al. New actigraphic assessment method for periodic leg movements (PLM). Sleep 1995;18(8):689–697.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Kotagal S, Silber M. Childhood-onset restless legs syndrome. Ann Neurol 2004;56:803–807.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Walters A. Is there a subpopulation of children with growing pains who really have restless legs syndrome? A review of the literature. Sleep Med 2002;3:93–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Walters A. Toward a better definition of the restless legs syndrome. The International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group. Mov Disord 1995;10:634–642.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Connor J, Boyer P, Menzies S, et al. Neuropathological examination suggests impaired brain iron acquisition in restless legs syndrome. Neurology 2003;61:304–309.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Earley C, Connor J, Beard J, et al. Abnormalities in CSF concentrations of ferritin and transferrin in restless legs syndrome. Neurology 2000;54:1698–1700.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Michaud M, Soucy J, Chabli A, et al. SPECT imaging of striatal pre- and postsynaptic dopaminergic status in restless legs syndrome with periodic leg movements in sleep. J Neurol 2002;249:164–170.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Staedt J, Stoppe G, Kogler A, et al. Nocturnal myoclonus syndrome (periodic movements in sleep) related to central dopamine D2-receptor alteration. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1995;245:8–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Turjanski N, Lees A, Brooks D. Striatal dopaminergic function in restless legs syndrome: 18F-dopa and 11C-raclopride PET studies. Neurology 1999;52:932–937.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Nofzinger E, Fasieczka A, Berman S, Thase M. Bupropion SR reduces periodic limb movements associated with arousals from sleep in depressed patients with periodic limb movement disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2000;61:858–862.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Allen R, Becker PM, Bogan R, Schmidt M, Kushida CA, Fry JM, Poceta JS, Winslow D. Ropinirole decreases periodic leg movements and improves sleep parameters in patients with restless legs syndrome. Sleep. 2004 Aug 1;27(5):907–914.

    Google Scholar 

  152. Bogan RK, Fry JM, Schmidt MH, Carson SW, Ritchie SY; TREAT RLS US Study Group. Ropinirole in the treatment of patients with restless legs syndrome: a US-based randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Mayo Clin Proc 2006;81(1):17–27.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Partinen M, Hirvonen K, Jama L, Alakuijala A, Hublin C, Tamminen I, Koester J, Reess J. Efficacy and safety of pramipexole in idiopathic restless legs syndrome: a polysomnographic dose-finding study—the PRELUDE study. Sleep Med. 2006; 7(5):407–417.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Saletu B, Gruber G, Saletu M, Brandstatter N, Hauer C, Prause W, Ritter K, Saletu-Zyhlarz G. Sleep laboratory studies in restless legs syndrome patients as compared with normals and acute effects of ropinirole. 1. Findings on objective and subjective sleep and awakening quality. Neuropsychobiology 2000;41(4):181–189.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Dodd M, Klos K, Bower J, Geda Y, Josephs K, Ahlskog J. Pathological gambling caused by drugs used to treat Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2005;62(9):1377–1381.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Grosset K, Macphee G, Pal G, et al. Problematic gambling on dopamine agonists: not such a rarity. Mov Disord 2006;21(12):2206–2208.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Weintraub D, Siderowf A, Potenza M, et al. Association of dopamine agonist use with impulse control disorders in Parkinson disease. Arch Neurol 2006;63(7):969–973.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Ondo W. Methadone for refractory restless legs syndrome. Mov Disord 2005;20(3):345–348.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Caples S, Gami A, Somers V. Obstructive sleep apnea. Ann Intern Med 2005;142:187–197.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. White D. Pathogenesis of obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;172:1363–1370.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Katz I, Stradling J, Slutsky A, Hoffstein V. Do patients with obstructive sleep apnea have thick necks? Am Rev Respir Dis 1990;141(5 Pt 1):1228–1231.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Sharma S, Kurian S, Malik V, et al. A stepped approach for prediction of obstructive sleep apnea in overtly asymptomatic obese subjects: a hospital based study. Sleep Medicine 2004;5(4):351–357.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Gottlieb D, Yao Q, Redline S, Ali T, Mahowald M. Does snoring predict sleepiness independently of apnea and hypopnea frequency? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162: 1512–1517.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Johns M. A new method for measuring daytime sleepiness: the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Sleep 1991;14:540–545.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Johns M. Sleepiness in different situations as measured by the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Sleep 1994;17:703–710.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Gottlieb D, Whitney C, Bonekat W, et al. Relation of sleepiness to respiratory disturbance index: the Sleep Heart Health Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:502–507.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Arand D, Bonnet M, Hurwitz T, Mitler M, Rosa R, Sangal B. The clinical use of the MSLT and MWT. Sleep 2005;28(1):123–144.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Barbe, Pericas J, Munoz A, Findley L. Automobile accidents in patients with sleep apnea syndrome. An epidemiological and mechanistic study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998;158:18–22.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. George C. Driving and automobile crashes in patients with obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome. Thorax 2004; 59(9):804–807.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Teran-Santos J, Jimenez-Gomez A, Cordero-Guevara J. The association between sleep apnea and the risk of traffic accidents. Cooperative Group Burgos-Santander. N Engl J Med 1999;340:847–851.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Engleman H, Joffe D. Neuropsychological function in obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Medicine Reviews 1999;3(1):59–78.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Findley L, Fabrizio M, Knight H, et al. Driving simulator performance in patients with sleep apnea. Am Rev Respir Dis 1989;140:529–530.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Flemons W, Remmers J, Whitelaw W. The correlation of a computer simulated driving program with polysomnographic indices and neuropsychological tests in consecutively referred patients for assessment of sleep apnea. Sleep 1993;16(Suppl):S71.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. George C, Boudreau A, Smiley A. Simulated driving performance in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996;154:175–181.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Haraldsson P, Carenfelt C, Laurell H, et al. Driving vigilance simulator test. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh) 1990;110:136–140.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Maycock G. Sleepiness and driving; the experience of UK car drivers. J Sleep Res 1996;5:229–237.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Young T, Blustein J, Finn L, et al. Sleep-disordered breathing and motor vehicle accidents in a population-based sample of employed adults. Sleep 1997;21:608–613.

    Google Scholar 

  178. Netzer N, Stoohs R, Netzer C, Clark K, Strohl K. Using the Berlin Questionnaire to identify patients at risk for the sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;131:485–491.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Ohayon M. The effects of breathing-related sleep disorders on mood disturbances in the general population. J Clin Psychiatry 2003;64(10):1195–1200.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Peppard P, Szklo-Coxe M, Hla M, Young T. Longitudinal association of sleep-related breathing disorder and depression. Arch Intern Med 2006;166:1709–1715.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Sharafkhaneh A, Giray H, Richardson P, Young T, Hirshkowitz M. Association of psychiatric disorders and sleep apnea in a large cohort. Sleep 2005;28(11):1405–1411.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Bardwell W, Ancoli-Israel S, Dimsdale J. Comparison of the effects of depressive symptoms and apnea severity on fatigue in patients with obstructive sleep apnea: a replication study. J Affect Disord 2007;97(1–3):181–186.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Bardwell W, Moore P, Ancoli-Israel S, Dimsdale J. Fatigue in obstructive sleep apnea: driven by depressive symptoms instead of apnea severity. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160(2):350–355.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Schroder C, O’Hara R. Depression and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). Ann Gen Psychiatry 2005;4:13.

    Google Scholar 

  185. Kawahara S, Akashiba T, Akahoshi T, Horie T. Nasal CPAP improves the quality of life and lessens the depressive symptoms in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Intern Meed 2005;44(5):422–427.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  186. Li H, Huang Y, Chen N, Fang T, Liu C, Wang P. Mood improvement after surgery for obstructive sleep apnea. Laryngoscope 2004;114(6):1098–1102.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Means M, Lichstein K, Edinger J, et al. Changes in depressive symptoms after continuous positive airway pressure treatment for obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Breath 2003;7(1):31–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. El-Ad B, Lavie P. Effect of sleep apnea on cognition and mood. Int Rev Psychiatry 2005;17(4):277–282.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Verstraeten E, Cluydts R. Executive control of attention in sleep apnea patients: theoretical concepts and methodological considerations. Sleep Med Rev 2004;8(4):257–267.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Verstraeten E, Cluydts R, Pevernagie D, Hoffman G. Executive function in sleep apnea: controlling for attentional capacity in assessing executive attention. Sleep 2004;27(4):685–693.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. Beebe D, Groesz L, Wells M, Nichnols B, McGee K. The neuropsychological effects of obstructive sleep apnea: a meta-analysis of norm-referenced and case-controlled data. Sleep 2003;26(3):298–307.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. Bixler E, Vgontzas A, Lin H, et al. Prevalence of sleep-disordered breathing in women: effects of gender. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:608–613.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Duran J, Esnaola S, Rubio R, Iztueta A. Obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea and related clinical features in a population-based sample of subjects aged 30 to 70 yr. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:685–689.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Young T, Palta M, Dempsey J, Skatrud J, Weber S, Badr S. The occurrence of sleep-disordered breathing among middle-aged adults. N Engl J Med 1993;328:1230–1235.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Young T, Peppard P, Gottlieb D. Epidemiology of obstructive sleep apnea: a population health perspective. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:1217–1239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Chesson A, Berry R, Pack A. Practice parameters for the use of portable monitoring devices in the investigation of suspected obstructive sleep apnea in adults. Sleep 2003;26(7):907–913.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Pittman S, Ayas N, MacDonald M, Malhotra A, Fogel R, White D. Using a wrist-worn device based on peripheral arterial tonometry to diagnose obstructive sleep apnea: in-laboratory and ambulatory validation. Sleep 2004;27(1):923–933.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Hoselet J, Ayappa I, Norman R, Krieger A, Rapoport D, et al. Classification of sleep-disordered breathing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;163:398–404.

    Google Scholar 

  199. Guilleminault C, Kirisoglu C, Poyares D, et al. Upper airway resistance syndrome: a long-term outcome study. J Psychiatr Res 2006;40(3):273–279.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. Brooks L. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in infants and children: clinical features and pathophysiology. In: Sheldon S, Ferber R, Kryger M, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Sleep Medicine. Elsevier; 2005:223–229.

    Google Scholar 

  201. Young T. Sleep-disordered breathing in older adults: is it a condition distinct from that in middle-aged adults? [Editorial]. Sleep 1996;19:529–530.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. He J, Kryger M, Zorick F, Conway W, Roth T. Mortality and apnea index in obstructive sleep apnea. Experience in 385 male patients. Chest 1988;94(1):9–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Narkiewicz K, Montano N, Cogliati C, van de Borne P, Dyken M, Somers V. Altered cardiovascular variability in obstructive sleep apnea. Circulation 1998;98:1071–1077.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Phillips B, Narkiewicz K, Pesek C, Haynes W, Dyken M, Somers V. Effects of obstructive sleep apnea on endothelin-1 and blood pressure. J Hypertens 1999;17:61–66.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Schulz R, Schmidt D, Blum A, et al. Decreased plasma levels of nitric oxide derivatives in obstructive sleep apnoea: response to CPAP therapy. Thorax 2000;55:1046–1051.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Peppard P, Young T, Palta M, Skatrud J. Prospective study of the association between sleep-disordered breathing and hypertension. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1378–1384.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Javaheri S, Parker T, Liming J, et al. Sleep apnea in 81 ambulatory male patients with stable heart failure. Types and their prevalences, consequences, and presentations. Circulation 1998;97:2154–2159.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Kaneko Y, Floras J, Usui K, et al. Cardiovascular effects of continuous positive airway pressure in patients with heart failure and obstructive sleep apnea. N Engl J Med 2003;348: 1233–1241.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  209. Gami A, Pressman G, Caples S, et al. Association of atrial fibrillation and obstructive sleep apnea. Circulation 2004;110:364–367.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. Phillips B, Kato M, Narkiewicz K, Choe I, Somers V. Increases in leptin levels, sympathetic drive, and weight gain in obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2000;279:H234–237.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Punjabi M, Sorkin J, Katzel L, Goldberg A, Schwartz A, Smith P. Sleep-disordered breathing and insulin resistance in middle-aged and overweight men. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:677–682.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. Smith P, Gold A, Meyers D, Haponik E, Bleecker E. Weight loss in mildly to moderately obese patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Ann Intern Med 1985;103:850–855.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Sullivan C, Issa F, Berthon-Jones M, Eves L. Reversal of obstructive sleep apnoea by continuous positive airway pressure applied through the nares. Lancet 1981;1:862–865.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Ballester E, Badia J, Hernandez L, et al. Evidence of the effectiveness of continuous positive airway pressure in the treatment of sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:495–501.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Jenkinson D, Davies J, Mullins R, Stradling J. Comparison of therapeutic and subtherapeutic nasal continuous positive airway pressure for obstructive sleep apnoea: a randomised prospective parallel trial. Lancet 1999;353:2100–2105.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Becker H, Jerrentrup A, Ploch T, et al. Effect of nasal continuous positive airway pressure treatment on blood pressure in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. Circulation 2003;107:68–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  217. Pepperell J, Ramdassingh-Dow S, Crosthwaite N, et al. Ambulatory blood pressure after therapeutic and subtherapeutic nasal continuous positive airway pressure for obstructive sleep apnoea: a randomised parallel trial. Lancet 2002;359:204–210.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  218. Ip M, Lam B, Chan L, et al. Circulating nitric oxide is suppressed in obstructive sleep apnea and is reversed by nasal continuous positive pressure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2000;162:2166–2171.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Brooks B, Cistulli P, Borkman M, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea in obese noninsulin-dependent diabetic patients: effect of continuous positive airway pressure treatment on insulin responsiveness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994;79:1681–1685.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Harsch I, Schahin S, Radespiel-Troger M, et al. Continuous positive airway pressure treatment rapidly improves insulin sensitivity in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004;169:156–162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  221. Chin K, Shimizu K, Nakamura T, et al. Changes in intra-abdominal visceral fat and serum leptin levels in patients with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome following nasal continuous positive airway pressure therapy. Circulation 1999;100:706–712.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Mansfield D, Gollogly N, Kaye D, Richardson M, Bergin P, Naughton M. Controlled trial of continuous positive airway pressure in obstructive sleep apnea and heart failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004;169:361–366.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  223. Kanagala R, Murali N, Friedman P, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea and the recurrence of atrial fibrillation. Circulation 2003;107:2589–2594.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  224. Gay P, Weaver T, Loube D, et al. Evaluation of positive airway pressure treatment for sleep related breathing disorders in adults. Sleep 2006;29(3):381–401.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  225. Edinger J, Radtke R. Use of in vivo desensitization to treat a patient’s claustrophobic response to nasal CPAP. Sleep 1993;16(7):678–680.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. Sher A, Schechtman K, Piccirillo J. The efficacy of surgical modifications of the upper airway in adults with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep 1996;19(2):156–177.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. Kezirian E, Goldberg A. Hypopharyngeal surgery in obstructive sleep apnea: an evidence-based medicine review. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2006;132(2):206–213.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  228. Li K. Surgical therapy for adult obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Med Rev 2005;9(3):201–209.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Riley R, Powell N, Li K, Troell R, Guilleminault C. Surgery and obstructive sleep apnea: long-term clinical outcomes. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2000;122(3):415–421.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Schwartz J, Hirshkowitz M, Erman M, Schmidt-Nowara W. Modafinil as adjunct therapy for daytime sleepiness in obstructive sleep apnea. Chest 2003;124:2192–2199.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Black J, Silber M, Krahn L, et al. Analysis of hypocretin (orexin) antibodies in patients with narcolepsy. Sleep 2005; 28(4):427–431.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  232. Ohayon M, Priest R, Zulley J, Smirne S, Paiva T. Prevalence of narcolepsy symptomatology and diagnosis in the European general population. Neurology 2002;58(12):1826–1833.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Peled R, Lavie P. Narcolepsy-cataplexy: an extremely rare disorder in Israel (abstract). Sleep Res 1987;16:404.

    Google Scholar 

  234. Honda Y. Census of narcolepsy, cataplexy and sleep life among teen-agers in Fujisawa City (abstract). Sleep Res 1979; 1979:191.

    Google Scholar 

  235. Silber M, Krahn L, Olson E, Pankratz V. The epidemiology of narcolepsy in Olmsted County, Minnesota: a population-based study. Sleep 2002;25(2):197–202.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  236. Billiard M, Dauvilliers Y. Idiopathic hypersomnia. Sleep Med Rev 2001;5(5):351–360.

    Google Scholar 

  237. Black J, Nishino S, Brooks S. Narcolepsy and syndromes of central nervous system-mediated sleepiness. In: Buysse D, ed. Sleep Disorders and Psychiatry Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2005:107–137.

    Google Scholar 

  238. Roth B, Nevsimalova S, Rechtschaffen A. Hypersomnia with “sleep drunkenness”. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1972;26:456–462.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Gélineau J. De La Narcolepsie. Lancette Fr 1880;53:626–628.

    Google Scholar 

  240. Krahn L, Lymp J, Moore W, Slocum N, Silber M. Characterizing the emotions that trigger cataplexy. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2005;17:45–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  241. Krahn L, Black J, Silber M. Narcolepsy: new understanding of irresistible sleep. Mayo Clin Proc 2001;76:185–194.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Yoss R, Daly D. Criteria for the diagnosis of the narcoleptic syndrome. Proc Staff Meet Mayo Clin 1957;32:320–328.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Guilleminault C, Fromherz. Narcolepsy: diagnosis and management. In: Kryger M, Roth T, Dement W, eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2005:780–790.

    Google Scholar 

  244. Simon D, Nishino S, Scammell T. Mistaken diagnosis of psychogenic gait disorder in a man with status cataplecticus (“limp man syndrome”). Mov Disord 2004;19(7):838–840.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  245. Bhat S, Galang R. Narcolepsy presenting as schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159(7):1245.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  246. Kryger M, Walid R, Manfreda J. Diagnoses received by narcolepsy patients in the year prior to diagnosis by a sleep specialist. Sleep 2002;25(1):36–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  247. Douglass A. Narcolepsy: differential diagnosis or etiology in some cases of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. CNS Spectr 2003;8(2):120–126.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  248. Littner M, Kushida C, Wise M, et al. Practice parameters for clinical use of the multiple sleep latency test and the maintenance of wakefulness test. Sleep 2005;28(1):113–121.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  249. Sadeh A, Hauri P, Kripke D, Lavie P. The role of actigraphy in the evaluation of sleep disorders. Sleep 1995;18:288–302.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  250. Bitsios P, Schiza S, Giakoumaki S, Savidou K, Alegakis A, Siafakas N. Pupil miosis within 5 minutes in darkness is a valid and sensitive quantitative measure of alertness: application in daytime sleepiness associated with sleep apnea. Sleep 2006;29(11):1482–1488.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  251. Yoss R, Moyer N, Ogle K. The pupillogram and narcolepsy: a method to measure decreased levels of wakefulness. Neurology 1969;19:921–928.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  252. Mignot E, Hayduk R, Black J, Grumet F, Guilleminault C. HLA DQB1*0602 is associated with cataplexy in 509 narcoleptic patients. Sleep 1997;20:1012–1020.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  253. Pelin Z, Guilleminault C, Risch N, Grumet F, Mignot E, Group UMiNMS. HLA-DQB1*0602 homozygosity increases relative risk for narcolepsy but not disease severity in two ethnic groups. Tissue Antigens 1998;51:96–100.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Krahn L, Pankratz V, Oliver L, Boeve B, Silber M. Hypocretin (orexin) levels in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with narcolepsy: relationship to cataplexy and HLA DQB1*0602 statue. Sleep 2002;25(7):733–736.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  255. Nishino S, Kanbayashi T. Symptomatic narcolepsy, cataplexy and hypersomnia, and their implications in the hypothalamic hypocretin/orexin system. Sleep Med Rev 2005;9(4):269–310.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  256. Morrish E, King M, Smith I, Shneerson J. Factors associated with a delay in the diagnosis of narcolepsy. Sleep Med 2004;5:37–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  257. Ervik S, Abdelnoor M, Heier M, Ramberg M, Strand G. Health-related quality of life in narcolepsy. Acta Neurol Scand 2006;114(3):198–204.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  258. Haba-Rubio J. Psychiatric aspects of organic sleep disorders. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2005;7(4):335–346.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  259. Billiard M, Besset A, Cadilhac J. The clinical and polygraphic development of narcolepsy. In: Guilleminault C, Lugaresi E, eds. Sleep/Wake Disorders: Natural History, Epidemiology, and Long-term Evolution. New York: Raven Press; 1983:171–185.

    Google Scholar 

  260. Schenck C, Mahowald M. Motor dyscontrol in narcolepsy: rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep without atonia and REM sleep behavior disorder. Ann Neurol 1992;32:3–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  261. Arnulf I, Zeitzer J, File J, Farber N, Mignot E. Kleine-Levin syndrome: a systematic review of 186 cases in the literature. Brain 2005;128(12):2763–2776.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  262. Nofzinger E, Thase M, Reynolds C, et al. Hypersomnia in bipolar depression: a comparison with narcolepsy using the multiple sleep latency test. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148(9):1177–1181.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  263. Billiard M, Dolenc L, Aldaz C, Ondze B, Besset A. Hypersomnia associated with mood disorders: a new perspective. J Psychosom Res 1994;38(Suppl 1):41–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  264. Aldrich M, Chervin R, Malow B. Value of the multiple sleep latency test (MSLT) for the diagnosis of narcolepsy. Sleep 1997;20(8):620–629.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  265. Mignot E, Lin L, Finn L, et al. Correlates of sleep-onset REM periods during the multiple sleep latency test in community adults. Brain 2006;129(6):1609–1623.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  266. Singh M, Drake C, Roth T. The prevalence of multiple sleep-onset REM periods in a population-based sample. Sleep 2006;29(7):890–895.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  267. Malik S, Boeve B, Krahn L, Silber M. Narcolepsy associated with other central nervous system disorders. Neurology 2001;57:539–541.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Hufford D. The Terror that Comes in the Night. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press; 1982.

    Google Scholar 

  269. Mignot E. Narcolepsy: pharmacology, pathophysiology, and genetics. In: Kryger M, Roth T, Dement W, eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2005:761–779.

    Google Scholar 

  270. Montplaisir J, Poirier G. HLA in disorders of excessive sleepiness without cataplexy in Canada. In: Honda Y, Juji T, eds. HLA in Narcolepsy. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1988:186–190.

    Google Scholar 

  271. Mitler M, Aldrich M, Koob G, et al. Narcolepsy and its treatment with stimulants: ASDA standards of practice. Sleep 1994;17:352–371.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. Auger R, Goodman S, Silber M, Krahn L, Pankratz V, Slocum N. Risks of high-dose stimulants in the treatment of disorders of excessive somnolence: a case–control study. Sleep 2005; 28(6):667–672.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  273. Black J, Hirshkowitz M. Modafinil for treatment of residual excessive sleepiness in nasal continuous positive airway pressure-treated obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome. Sleep 2005;28(4):464–471.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  274. US Xyrem in narcolepsy multi-center study group. A randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled multicenter trial comparing the effects of three doses of orally administered sodium oxybate with placebo for the treatment of narcolepsy. Sleep 2002;25:42–49.

    Google Scholar 

  275. Jacobson A, Kales J, Kales A. Clinical and electrophysiological correlates of sleep disorders in children. In: Kales A, ed. Sleep: Physiology and Pathology. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott; 1969:109–118.

    Google Scholar 

  276. Salzavulo P, Chevalier A. Sleep problems in children and their relationship with early disturbances of the waking-sleeping rhythms. Sleep 1983;6:47–51.

    Google Scholar 

  277. Simonds J, Parraga H. Prevalence of sleep disorders and sleep behaviors in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1982;21:383–388.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  278. Bixler E, Kales A, Soldatos C, et al. Prevalence of sleep disorders in the Los 278. Angeles metropolitan area. Am J Psychiatry 1979;136:1257–1262.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  279. Cirignotta F, Zucconi M, Mondini S, et al. Enuresis, sleepwalking and nightmares: an epidemiological survey in the republic of San Marino. In: Guilleminault C, Lugaresi E, eds. Sleep/Wake Disorders: Natural History, Epidemiology, and Long-Term Evolution. New York: Raven Press; 1983:237–241.

    Google Scholar 

  280. Hublin C, Kaprio J, Partinen M, et al. Prevalence and genetics of sleepwalking: a population-based twin study. Neurology 1997;48:177–181.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  281. Ohayon M, Caulet M, Priest R. Violent behavior during sleep. J Clin Psychiatry 1997;58(8):369–376.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  282. Schenck C, Mahowald M. A polysomnographically documented case of adult somnambulism with long-distance automobile driving and frequent nocturnal violence: parasomnia with continuing danger as a noninsane automatism? Sleep 1995;18(9):765–772.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  283. Broughton R, Billings R, Cartwright R, et al. Homicidal somnambulism: a case report. Sleep 1994;17(3):253–264.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  284. Cartwright R. Sleepwalking violence: a sleep disorder, a legal dilemma, and a psychological challenge. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:1149–1158.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  285. Schenck C. Paradox Lost, Midnight in the Battleground of Sleep and Dreams. Minneapolis, MN: Extreme-Nights, LLC; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  286. Schenck C, Milner D, Hurwitz T, Bundlie S, Mahowald M. A polysomnographic and clinical report on sleep-related injury in 100 adult patients. Am J Psychiatry 1989;146(9):1166–1173.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  287. Mahowald M, Schenck C. REM sleep parasomnias. In: Kryger M, Roth T, Dement W, eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2005:897–916.

    Google Scholar 

  288. Schenck C. Sleep Runners: the stories behind everyday parasomnias. St. Paul, MN: Slow Wave Films, LLC; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  289. Schenck C, Boyd J, Mahowald M. A parasomnia overlap disorder involving sleepwalking, sleep terrors, and REM sleep behavior disorder in 33 polysomnographically confirmed cases. Sleep 1997;20(11):972–981.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  290. Schenck C, Hurwitz T, O’Connor K, Mahowald M. Additional categories of sleep-related eating disorders and the current status of treatment. Sleep 1993;16(5):457–466.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  291. Vetrugno R, Manconi M, Ferini-Strambi L, Provini F, Plazzi G, Montagna P. Nocturnal eating: sleep-related eating disorder or night eating syndrome? A videopolysomnographic study. Sleep 2006;29(7):949–954.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  292. Winkelman J. Sleep-related eating disorder and night eating syndrome: sleep disorders, eating disorders, or both? Sleep 2006;29(7):876–877.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  293. Ebrahim I. Somnambulistic sexual behaviour (sexsomnia). J Clin Forensic Med 2006;13(4):219–224.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  294. Shapiro C, Grajanovic N, Fedoroff J. Sexsomnia—a new parasomnia? Can J Psychiatry 2003;48(5):311–317.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  295. Pressman M. Hypersynchronous delta sleep EEG activity and sudden arousals from slow-wave sleep in adults without a history of parasomnias: clinical and forensic implications. Sleep 2004;27(4):706–710.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  296. Schenck C, Pareja J, Patterson A, Mahowald M. Analysis of polysomnographic events surrounding 252 slow-wave sleep arousals in thirty-eight adults with injurious sleepwalking and sleep terrors. J Clin Neurophysiol 1998;15(2):159–166.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  297. Zadra A, Pilon M, Joncas S, Rompre S, Montplaisir J. Analysis of postarousal EEG activity during somnambulistic episodes. J Sleep Res 2004;13(3):279–284.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  298. Bassetti C, Vella S, Donati F, Wielepp P, Weder B. SPECT during sleepwalking. Lancet 2000;356:484–485.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  299. Lapierre O, Montplaisir J. Polysomnographic features of REM sleep behavior disorder: development of a scoring method. Neurol 1992;42:1371–1374.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  300. Consens F, Chervin R, Koeppe R, et al. Validation of a polysomnographic score for REM sleep behavior disorder. Sleep 2005;28(8):993–997.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  301. Ferini-Strambi L, Di Gioia M, Castronovo V, Oldani A, ZucconiM, Cappa S. Neuropsychological assessment in idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD). Does the idiopathic form of RBD really exist? Neurology 2004;62:41–45.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  302. Schenck C, Bundlie S, Mahowald M. Delayed emergence of a parkinsonian disorder in 38% of 29 older men initially diagnosed with idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder. Neurology 1996;46:388–393.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  303. Schenck C, Bundlie S, Mahowald M. REM behavior disorder (RBD): delayed emergence of parkinsonism and/or dementia in 65% of older men initially diagnosed with idiopathic RBD, and analysis of the minimum and maximum tonic and/or phasic electromyographic abnormalities found during REM sleep. Sleep 2003;26(abstract suppl):A316.

    Google Scholar 

  304. Boeve B, Silber M, Parisi J, et al. Synucleinopathy pathology and REM sleep behavior disorder plus dementia or parkinsonism. Neurology 2003;61:40–45.

    Google Scholar 

  305. Fantini M, Ferini-Strambi L, Montplaisir J. Idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder: toward a better nosologic definition. Neurology 2005;64:780–786.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  306. Schenck C, Mahowald M. REM sleep behavior disorder: clinical, developmental, and neuroscience perspectives 16 years after its formal identification in SLEEP. Sleep 2002;25(2):120–138.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  307. Hefez A, Allodi F, Moldofsky H. Nightmares, sleep and symptoms in survivors of torture. Sleep Res 1985;14:129.

    Google Scholar 

  308. Husain A, Miller P, Carwile S. REM sleep; behavior disorder: potential relationship to post-traumatic stress disorder. J Clin Neurophysiol 2001;18(2):148–157.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  309. Ohayon M, Guilleminault C, Priest R. Night terrors, sleepwalking, and confusional arousals in the general population: Their frequency and relationship to other sleep and mental disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1999;60(4):268–276.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  310. Boller F, Wright D, Cavalieri R, Mitsumoto H. Paroxysmal ‘nightmares’, sequel of a stroke responsive to diphenylhydantoin. Neurology 1975;25:1026–1028.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  311. Cadhillac J. Complex partial seizures and REM sleep. In: Sterman M, Shouse M, Passouant P, eds. Sleep and Epilepsy. New York: Academic Press; 1982:315–324.

    Google Scholar 

  312. D’Cruz ON, Vaughn B. Nocturnal seizures mimic REM behavior disorder. Am J END Technol 1997;37:258–264.

    Google Scholar 

  313. Epstein A, Hill W. Ictal phenomena during sleep of a temporal lobe epileptic. Arch Neurol 1966;155:367–375.

    Google Scholar 

  314. Louden M, Morehead M, Schmidt H. Polyspikes in REM sleep mimicking REM sleep behavior disorder. Sleep Res 1994;23:283.

    Google Scholar 

  315. Mahowald M, Schenck C. Parasomnia purgatory: the epileptic/non-epileptic parasomnia interface. In: Gates J, Rowan A, eds. Non-epileptic seizures, 2nd ed. Boston, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2000:71–94.

    Google Scholar 

  316. Silvestri R, DeDomenico P, Musolino R, et al. Nocturnal complex partial seizures precipitated by REM sleep. Eur Neurol 1989;29:80–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  317. Maselli R, Rosenberg R, Spire J. Episodic nocturnal wanderings in non-epileptic young patients. Sleep 1988;11:156–161.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  318. Pedley T, Guilleminault C. Episodic nocturnal wanderings responsive to anti-convulsant drug therapy. Ann Neurol 1977;2:30–35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  319. Lugaresi E, Cirignotta F. Hypnogenic paroxysmal dystonia: Epileptic seizure or a new syndrome? Sleep 1981;4(2):129–138.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  320. Lugaresi E, Cirignotta F, Montagna P. Nocturnal paroxysmal dystonia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986;49:375–380.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  321. Boeve B, Silber M, Ferman T, Lucas J, Parisi J. Association of REM sleep behavior disorder and neurodegenerative disease may reflect an underlying synucleinopathy. Mov Disord 2001;16:622–630.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  322. Guilleminault C, Kirisoglu C, Bao G, Arias V, Chan A, LiK. Adult chronic sleepwalking and its treatment based on polysomnography. Brain 2005;128(5):1062–1069.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  323. Guilleminault C, Sylvestri R. Disorders of arousal and epilepsy during sleep. In: Sterman M, Shouse M, Passouant P, eds. Sleep and Epilepsy. New York: Academic Press; 1982: 513–531.

    Google Scholar 

  324. Nalamalapu U, Goldberg R, DiPhillipo J, Fry J. Behaviors simulating REM behavior disorder in patients with severe obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Res 1996;25:311.

    Google Scholar 

  325. Schenck C, Milner D, Hurwitz T, et al. Sleep-related injury in 85 adult patients: a polysomnographic study. Sleep Res 1988;17:247.

    Google Scholar 

  326. Thorpy M. Rhythmic movement disorder. In: Thorpy M, ed. Handbook of Sleep Disorders. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc; 1990:609–629.

    Google Scholar 

  327. Whyte J, Kavey N, Gidro-Frank S. A self-destructive variant of jactatio captitis nocturna. J Nerv Ment Dis 1991;179(1):49–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  328. Schenck C, Milner D, Hurwitz T, Bundlie S, Mahowald M. Dissociative disorders presenting as somnambulism: polysomnographic, video and clinical documentation (8 cases). Dissoc 1989;2(4):194–204.

    Google Scholar 

  329. Hauri P, Friedman M, Ravaris C. Sleep in patients with spontaneous panic attacks. Sleep 1989;12(4):323–337.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  330. Mahowald M, Schenck C, Rosen G, Hurwitz T. The role of a sleep disorder center in evaluating sleep violence. Arch Neurol 1992;49:604–607.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  331. Joncas S, Zadra A, Paquet J, Montplaisir J. The value of sleep deprivation as a diagnostic tool in adult sleepwalkers. Neurology 2002;58:936–940.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  332. Kolivakis T, Margolese H, Beauclair L, Chouinard G. Olanzapine-induced somnambulism. Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158(7):1158.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  333. Mahowald M, Cramer-Bornemann M. NREM sleep-arousal parasomnias. In: Kryger M, Roth T, Dement W, eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, 4th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders; 2005:889–896.

    Google Scholar 

  334. Morgenthaler T, Silber M. Amnestic sleep-related eating disorder associated with zolpidem. Sleep Med 2002;3(4): 323–327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  335. Jouvet M, Delorme F. Locus coeruleus et sommeil paradoxal. C R Soc Biol 1965;159:895–899.

    Google Scholar 

  336. Albin R, Koeppe R, Chervin R, Consens F, Wernette K, Frey K. Decreased striatal dopaminergic innervation in REM sleep behavior disorder. Neurology 2000;55:1410–1412.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  337. Eisensehr I, Linke R, Noachtar S, Scwarz J, Gildehaus F, Tatsch K. Reduced striatal dopamine transporters in idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder—comparison with Parkinson’s disease and controls. Brain 2000;123: 1155–1160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  338. Olson E, Boeve B, Silber M. Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder: demographic, clinical and laboratory findings in 93 cases. Brain 2000;123:331–339.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  339. Mahowald M. Does “idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder” exist? Sleep 2006;29(7):927–933.

    Google Scholar 

  340. Onofrj M, Luciano AL, Thomas A, Iacono D, D’Andreamatteo G. Mirtazapine induces REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) in parkinsonism. Neurology 2003;60(1):113–115.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  341. Louden MB, Morehead MA, Schmidt HS. Activation by selegiline (Eldepryle) of REM sleep behavior disorder in parkinsonism. WV Med J 1995;91(3):101.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  342. Schenck CH, Mahowald MW, Kim SW, O’Connor KA, Hurwitz, TD. Prominent eye movements during NREM sleep and REM sleep behavior disorder associated with fluoxetine treatment of depression and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Sleep 1992;15(3):226–235.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  343. Winkelman JW, James L. Serotonergic antidepressants are associated with REM sleep without atonia. Sleep 2004;27(2): 317–321.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  344. Schenck CH, Mahowald MW. Polysomnographic, neurologic, psychiatric, and clinical outcome report on 70 consecutive cases with REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD): sustained clonazepam efficacy in 89.5% of 57 treated patients. Cleveland Clinic J Med 1990;57(suppl):9–23.

    Google Scholar 

  345. Schenck C, Mahowald M. Motor dyscontrol in narcolepsy: rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep without atonia and REM sleep behavior disorder. Ann Neurol 1992;32(1):3–10.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  346. Kohen D, Mahowald M, Rosen G. Sleep-terror disorder in children: the role of self-hypnosis in management. Am J Clin Hypn 1992;34(4):233–244.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  347. Koe G. Hypnotic treatment of sleep terror disorder: a case report. Am J Clin Hypn 1989;32(1):36–40.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  348. Hauri P, Silber M, Boeve B. Treating parasomnias with hypnosis [abstract]. Sleep 2004;27:A286.

    Google Scholar 

  349. Hurwitz T, Mahowald M, Schenck C, Schluter J, Bundlie S. A retrospective outcome study and review of hypnosis as treatment of adults with sleepwalking and sleep terror. J Nerv Ment Dis 1991;179(4):228–233.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  350. Goldbloom D, Choinard G. Clonazepam in the treatment of neuroleptic-induced somnambulism. Am J Psychiatry 1984; 141:1486.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  351. Schenck C, Mahowald M. Combined bupropion-levodopa-trazodone therapy of sleep-related eating and sleep disruption in two adults with chemical dependency. Sleep 2000;23(5): 587–588.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  352. Winkelman J. Efficacy and tolerability of open-label topiramate in the treatment of sleep-related eating disorder: a retrospective case series. J Clin Psychiatry 2006;67:1729–1734.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  353. Schenck C, Mahowald M. Topiramate therapy of sleep related eating disorder (SRED). Sleep 2006;29(suppl):A268.

    Google Scholar 

  354. Schenck C, Mahowald M. Polysomnographic, neurologic, psychiatric, and clinical outcome report on 70 consecutive cases with REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD): sustained clonazepam efficacy in 89.5% of 57 treated patients. Cleveland Clin J Med 1990;57(Suppl):9–23.

    Google Scholar 

  355. Schenck C, Mahowald M. Long-term, nightly benzodiazepine treatment of injurious parasomnias and other disorders of disrupted nocturnal sleep in 170 adults. Am J Med 1996;100:333–337.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  356. Boeve B, Silber M, Ferman T. Melatonin therapy for treatment of REM sleep behavior disorder in neurologic disorders: results in 14 patients. Sleep Med 2003;4:281–284.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  357. Kunz D, Bes F. Melatonin as a therapy in REM sleep behavior disorder patients: an open-labeled pilot study on the possible influence of melatonin on REM-sleep regulation. Mov Disord 1999;14(3):507–511.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  358. Takeuchi N, Uchimura N, Hashizume Y, et al. Melatonin therapy for REM sleep behavior disorder. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2001;55(3):267–269.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  359. Ringman J, Simmons J. Treatment of REM sleep behavior disorder with donepezil: a report of three cases. Neurol 2000;55(6):870–871.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  360. Fantini M, Gagnon J, Filipini D, Montplaisir J. The effects of pramipexole in REM sleep behavior disorder. Neurol 2003;61(10):1418–1420.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  361. Schmidt M, Koshal V, Schmidt H. Use of pramipexole in REM sleep behavior disorder: results from a case series. Sleep Med 2006;7(5):418–423.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  362. Gagnon J, Postuma R, Montplaisir J. Update on the pharmacology of REM sleep behavior disorder. Neurol 2006;67(5):742–747.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  363. Krakow B, Kellner R, Pathak D, Lambert L. Imagery rehearsaltreatment for chronic nightmares. Behav Res Ther 1995;33(7):837–843.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  364. Krakow B, Zadra A. Clinical management of chronic nightmares: imagery rehearsal therapy. Behav Sleep Med 2006;4(1):45–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  365. Brophy M. Cyproheptadine for combat nightmares in post-traumatic stress disorder and dream anxiety disorder. Mil Med 1991;156(2):100–101.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  366. Gupta S, Popli A, Bathurst E, Hennig L, Droney T, Keller P. Efficacy of cyproheptadine for nightmares associated with posttraumatic stress disorder. Compr Psychiatry 1998;39(3): 160–164.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  367. Harsh H. Cyproheptadine for recurrent nightmares. Am J Psychiatry 1986;143(11):1491–1492.

    Google Scholar 

  368. Rijnders R, Laman D, van Diujn H. Cyproheptadine for posttraumatic nightmares. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157(9):1524–1525.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  369. Clark R, Canive J, Calais L, Qualls C, Brugger R, Vosburgh R. Cyproheptadine treatment of nightmares associated with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychopharm 1999;19(5): 486–487.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  370. Peskind E, Bonner L, Hoff D, Raskind M. Prazosin reduces trauma-related nightmares in older men with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2003;16(3):165–171.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  371. Daly C, Doyle M, Radkind M, Raskind E, Daniels C. Clinical case series: the use of prazosin for combat-related recurrent nightmares among operation Iraqi Freedom combat veterans. Mil Med 2005;170(6):513–515.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  372. Raskind M, Peskind E, Kanter E, et al. Reduction of nightmares and other PTSD symptoms in combat veterans by prazosin: a placebo-controlled study. Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:371–373.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  373. Raskind M, Thompson C, Petrie E, et al. Prazosin reduces nightmares in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2002;63:565–568.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  374. Taylor F, Raskind M. The alpha1-adrenergic antagonist praz\-osin improves sleep and nightmares in civilian trauma posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychopharm 2002;22(1):82–85.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  375. Raskind M, Peskind E, Hoff D, et al. A parallel group placebo controlled study of prazosin for trauma nightmares and sleep disturbance in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2007;61(8):928–934.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  376. Horrigan J, Barnhill L. The suppression of nightmares with guanfacine. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57(8):371.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  377. Kinzie J, Sack R, Riley C. The polysomnographic effects of clonidine on sleep disorders in posttraumatic stress disorder: a pilot study with Cambodian patients. J Nerv Ment Dis 1994;182(10):585–587.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  378. Iber C, Ancoli-Israel S, Chesson A, and Quan SF for the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. The AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events: Rules, Terminology and Technical Specifications, 1st ed.: Westchester, Illinois: American Academy of Sleep Medicine, 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  379. Stefansson H, Rye DB, Hicks A, et al. A Genetic Risk Factor for Periodic Limb Movements in Sleep. NEJM 2007;357:1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  380. Collop NA, Anderson WM, Boehlecke B, et al. Clinical Guidelines for the Usde of Unattended Portable Monitors in the Diagnosis of Obstructive Sleep Apnea in Adult Patients. Portable Monitoring Task Force of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. J Clin Sleep Med 2007;3(7):737–747.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  381. Schenck CH, Arnulf I, Mahowald MW: Sleep and Sex: What Can Go Wrong? A Review of the Literature on Sleep Related Disorders and Abnormal Sexual Behaviors and Experiences. Sleep 2007;30(6):683–702.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Thomas D. Hurwitz MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Carlos H. Schenck MD
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota Medical School Medicine, 420 Delaware Street, SE Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA

    S. Hossein Fatemi PhD

  2. American Foundation for Suicide Prevention, 120 Wall Street, New York, NY 10005, USA

    Paula J. Clayton MD (Medical Director) (Medical Director)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2008 Humana Press, a part of Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hurwitz, T.D., Schenck, C.H. (2008). Sleep Disorders. In: Fatemi, S.H., Clayton, P.J. (eds) The Medical Basis of Psychiatry. Humana Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-252-6_37

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59745-252-6_37

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-58829-917-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-59745-252-6

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation