Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
UNAIDS/WHO. (2002) AIDS epidemic update: December 2002. UNAIDS/ WHO, Geneva.
Seligmann, M., Pinching, A.J., Rosen, F.S., et al. (1987) Immunology of human immunodeficiency virus infection and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: an update. Ann. Int. Med. 107, 234–232.
Baum, M., Shor-Posner, G., Lu, Y., et al. (1995) Micronutrients and HIV-1 disease progression. AIDS 9, 1051–1056.
Beach, R., Mantero-Atienza, E., Shor-Posner, G., et al. (1992) Specific micronutrient abnormalities in asymptomatic HIV-1 infection. AIDS 6, 701–708.
Maas, J., Dukers, N., Krol, A., et al. (1998) Body mass index course in asymptomatic HIV-infected homosexual men and the predictive value of a decrease of body mass index for progression to AIDS. J. AIDS Hum. Retrovirol. 19, 254–259.
Chandra, R. (1991) Nutrition and immunity: lessons from the past and new insights into the future. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 53, 1087–1101.
Doherty, J., Golden, M.H.N., Raynes, J.G., Griffin, G.E., and McAdam, K.P.W.J. (1993) Acute-phase protein response is impaired in severely malnourished children. Clin. Sci. 84, 169–175.
Scrimshaw, N. and SanGiovanni, J.P. (1997) Synergism of nutrition, infection, and immunity: an overview. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 66, 464S-477S.
Semba, R. and Tang, A.M. (1999) Micronutrients and the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Br. J. Nutr. 81, 181–189.
Grunfeld, C., Pang, M., Schimizu, L., Shigenaga, J.K., Jensen, P., Feingold, K.R. (1992) Resting energy expenditure, caloric intake, and short-term weight change in human immunodeficiency virus infection and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 55, 455–460.
Macallan, D., Noble, C., Baldwin, C., et al. (1995) Energy expenditure and wasting syndrome in human immunodeficiency virus infection. New Engl. J. Med. 333, 83–88.
Dannhauser, A., van Staden, A.M., van der Ryst, E., et al. (1995) Nutritional status of HIV-1 seropositive patients in Free State Province of South Africa: Anthropometric and dietary profile. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 53, 165–173.
Gillin, J., Shike, M., Alock, N., et al. (1985) Malabsorption and mucosal abnormalities of the small intestine in the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. Ann. Int. Med. 102, 619–622.
Carbonnel, F., Beaugerie, L., Abou Rached, A., et al. (1997) Macronutrient intake and malabsorption in HIV infection: a comparison with other malabsorptive states. Gut 41, 805–810.
Beaugerie, L., Carbonnel, F., Carrat, F., et al. (1998) Factors of weight loss in patients with HIV and chronic diarrhea. J. AIDS Hum. Retrovirol. 19, 34–39. 16.
Melchior, J., Salmon, D., Rigaud, D., et al. (1991) Resting energy expenditure is increased in stable, malnourished HIV-infected patients. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 53, 437–441.
Castetbon, K., Kadio, A., Bondurand, A., et al. (1997) Nutritional status and dietary intakes in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected outpatients in Abidjan, Côte D’Ivoire, 1995. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 51, 81–86.
Carey, V., Yong, F.H., Frenkel, L.M., McKinney, R.E., Jr. (1998) Pediatric AIDS prognosis using somatic growth velocity. AIDS 12, 1361–1369.
Arpadi, S., Cuff, P.A., Kotler, D.P., et al. (2000) Growth velocity, fat-free mass and energy intake are inversely related to viral load in HIV-infected children. J. Nutr. 130, 2498–2502.
Tang, A., Graham, N.M.H., Semba, R.D., and Saah, A.J. (1997) Association between serum vitamin A and E levels and HIV-1 disease progression. AIDS11, 613–620.
Baum, M., Cassetti, L., Bonvehi, P., Shor-Posner, G., Lu, Y., and Sauberlich, H. (1994) Inadequate dietary intake and altered nutrition status in early HIV-1 infection. Nutr10, 16–20.
Koch, J., Garcia-Shelton, Y.L., Neal, E.A., Chan, M.F., Weaver, K.E., and Cello, J.P. (1996) Steatorrhea: a common manifestation in patients with HIV/AIDS. Nutr 12, 507–510.
Pernet, P., Vittecoq, D., Kodjo, A., et al. (1999) Intestinal absorption and permeability in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 34‚ 29–34.
Harriman, G., Smith, P.D., Home, M.K., et al. (1989) Vitamin B12 malabsorption in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch. Int. Med. 149, 2039–2041.
Ehrenpreis, E., Carlson, S.J., Boorstein, H.L., and Craig, R.M. (1994) Malabsorption and deficiency of vitamin B12 in HIV-infected patients with chronic diarrhea. Digestive Dis. Sci. 39, 2159–2162.
Kabanda, A., Vandercam, B., Bernad, A., Lauwerys, R., and van Ypersele de Strihou, C. (1996) Low molecular weight proteinuria in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 27, 803–808.
Jolly, P., Moon, T.D., Mitra, A.K., del Rosario, G.R., Blount, S., and Clemons, T.E. (1997) Vitamin A depletion in hospital and clinic patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome—a preliminary report. Nutr. Res. 17, 1427–1441.
Melchior, J., Raguin, G., and Boulier, A. (1993) Resting energy expenditure in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: comparison between patients with and without secondary infections. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 57, 614–619.
Macallan, D., Noble, C., Baldwin, C., Fosket, M., McManus, M., and Griffin, GE. (1993) Prospective analysis of patterns of weight change in stage IV human immunodeficiency virus infection. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 58, 417–424.
Johann-Liang, R., O’Neill, L., Cervia, J., et al. (2000) Energy balance, viral burden, insulin-like growth factor-1, interleukin-6 and growth impairment in children infected with human immunodeficiency virus. AIDS 14, 683–690.
Coodley, G., Loveless, M.O., and Merrill, T.M. (1992) The HIV wasting syndrome: A review. J. AIDS 7, 681–694.
Grunfeld, C., Kotler, D.P., Hamadeh, R., Tierney, A., Wang, J., and Pierson, R.N. (1998) Hypertriglyceridemia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am. J. Med. 86, 27–31.
Ziegler, E. and Filer, L.J. (1996) Present knowledge in nutrition. Washington, DC. International Life Sciences Institute.
Murray, R., Granner, D.K., Mayes, P.A., and Rodwell, V.W. (2000) Harper’ s Biochemistry. Appleton & Lange, CT.
Clark, R., Feleke, G., Din, M., et al. (2000) Nutritional treatment for acquired immunodeficiency virus-associated wasting using beta-hydroxy beta-methyl-butyrate, glutamine, and arginine: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J. Parenteral. Enteral. Nutr. 24, 133–139.
Clark, R., Feleke, G., Din, M., et al. (2000) Nutritional treatment for acquired immunodeficiency virus-associated wasting using beta-hydroxy beta-methyl-butyrate, glutamine, and arginine: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J. Parenteral. Enteral. Nutr. 24, 133–139.
Serwadda, D., Mugerwa, R.D., and Sewankambo, N.K. (1985) Slim disease: a new disease in Uganda and its association with HTLV-III infection. Lancet 2, 849–852.
Niyongabo, T., Henzel, D., Ndayishimyie, J.M., et al. (1999) Nutritional status of adult inpatients in Bujumbura, Burundi (impact of HIV infection). Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 53, 579–582.
Lucas, S., De Cock, K.M., Hounnou, A., et al. (1994) Contribution of tuberculosis to slim disease in Africa. Br. Med. J. 308, 1531–1533.
Chlebowski, R., Grosvenor, M.B., Bernhard, N.H., Morales, L.S., and Bulcavage, L.M. (1989) Nutritional status, gastrointestinal dysfunction, and survival in patients with AIDS. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 84, 1288–1293.
Baum, M., Shor-Posner, G., Zhang, G., et al. (1997) HIV-1 infection in women is associated with severe nutritional deficiencies. J. AIDS Hum. Retrovirol. 16, 272–278.
Pollack, H., Glasberg, H., Lee, E., et al. (1997) Impaired early growth of infants perinatally infected with human immunodeficiency virus: Correlation with viral load. J. Pediatr. 130, 915–922.
Kotler, D., Tierney, A.R., Wang, J., and Pierson, R.N. (1989) Magnitude of bodycell-mass depletion and the timing of death from wasting in AIDS. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 50, 444–447.
Semba, R., Caiaffa, W.T., Graham, N.M.H., Cohn, S., and Vlahov, D. (1995) Vitamin A deficiency and wasting as predictors of mortality in human immunodeficiency virus-infected injection drug users. J. Inf. Dis. 171, 1196–1202.
Wheeler, D., Gilbert, C.L., Launer, C.A., et al. (1998) Weight loss as a predictor of survival and disease progression in HIV infection. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. J. AIDS Hum. Retrovirol. 18, 80–85.
Lindan, C., Allen, S., and Serufilira, A. (1992) Predictors of mortality among HIV-infected women in Kigali, Rwanda. Ann. Intern. Med. 116, 320–328.
Berhane, R., Bagenda, D., Marum, L., et al. (1997) Growth failure as a prognostic indicator of mortality in pediatric HIV infection. Pediatr. 100, e7(pp 1–4).
McKinney, R. and Robertson, W.R. (1993) Effect of human immunodeficiency virus infection on the growth of young children. J. Pediatr. 123, 579–582.
Miller, T., Evan, S.J., Orav, E.J., Morris, V., McIntosh, K., and Winter, H.S. (1993) Growth and body composition in children infected with the human immunodeficiency virus-1. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 57, 588–592.
Saavedra, J., Henderson, R.A., Perman, J.A., et al. (1995) Longitudinal assessment of growth in children born to mothers with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 149, 497–502.
Guenter, P., Muurahainen, N., Simons, G., et al. (1993) Relationships among nutritional status, disease progression, and survival in HIV infection. J. AIDS 6, 1130–1138.
Feldman, J., Burns, D.N., Gange, S.J., et al. (2000) Serum albumin as a predictor of survival in HIV-infected women in the Women’s Interagency HIV study. AIDS 14, 863–870.
Melchior, J., Niyongabo, T., Henzel, D., Durack-Bown, I., Henri, S.C., and Boulier, A. (1999) Malnutrition and wasting, immunodeficiency, and chronic inflammation as independent predictors of survival in HIV-infected patients. Nutrition 15, 865–869.
Shearer, W., Easley, K.A., Goldfarb, J., et al. (2000) Evaluation of immune survival factors in pediatric HIV-1 infection. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 918, 298–312.
Gibert, C., Wheeler, D.A., Collins, G., et al. (1999) Randomized, controlled trial of caloric supplements in HIV infection. Terry Beim Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. J. AIDS 22, 253–259.
Semba, R., Graham, N.M.H., Caiaffa, W.T., Margolick, J.B., Clement, L., and Vlahov, D. (1993) Increased mortality associated with vitamin A deficiency during human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Arch. Int. Med. 153, 2149–2154.
John, G., Nduati, R.W., Mbori-Ngacha, D., et al. (1997) Genital shedding of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 DNA during pregnancy: association with immunosuppression, abnormal cervical or vaginal discharge, and severe vitamin A deficiency. J. Inf. Dis. 175, 57–62.
Skurnick, J., Bogden, J.D., Baker, H., et al. (1996) Micronutrient profiles in HIV1-infected heterosexual adults. J. AIDS Hum. Retrovirol. 12, 75–83. 58. Semba, R., Farzadegan, H., and Vlahov, D. (1997) Vitamin A levels and human immunodeficiency virus load in injection drug users. Clin. Diag. Lab. Immunol. 4, 93–95.
Bogden, J., Baker, H., Frank, O., et al. (1990) Micronutrient status and human immunodeficiency virus infection. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 587, 189–195.
Jimenez-Exposito, M., Bull o Bonet, M., Alonso-Villaverde, C., et al. (2002) Micronutrients in HIV-infection and the relationship with the inflammatory response. Med. Clin. (Barc.) 119, 765–769.
Fawzi, W., Msamanga, G.I., Spiegelman, D., et al. (1998) Randomized trial of effects of vitamin supplements on pregnancy outcomes and T cell counts in HIV1-infected women in Tanzania. Lancet 351, 1477–1482.
MacDonald, K., Malonza, I., Chen, D.K., et al. (2001) Vitamin A and risk of HIV-1 seroconversion among Kenyan men with genital ulcers. AIDS 15, 635–639.
Semba, R., Miotti, PG., Chiphangwi, J.D., et al. (1994) Maternal vitamin A deficiency and mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1. Lancet 343, 1593–1597.
Ullrich, R., Schneider, T., Heise, W., et al. (1994) Serum carotene deficiency in HIV-infected patients. Berlin diarrhoea/wasting syndrome study group. AIDS 8, 661–665.
Visser, M., Maartens, G., Kossew, G., and Hussey, G.D. (2003) Plasma vitamin A and zinc levels in HIV-infected adults in Cape Town, South Africa. Br. J. Nutr. 89, 475–482.
Paltiel, O., Falutz, J., Veilleux, M., Rosenblatt, D.S., and Gordon, K. (1995) Clinical correlates of subnormal vitamin B12 levels in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Am. J. Hematol. 49, 318–322.
Burkes, R., Cohen, H., Krailo, M., Sinow, R.M., and Carmel, R. (1987) Low serum cobalamin level occur frequently in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome and related disorders. Eur. J. Haematol. 38, 141–147.
Mantero-Atienza, E., Sotomayor, M.G., Shor-Posner, G., et al. (1991) Selenium status and immune function in asymptomatic HIV-1 seropositive men. Nutr. Res.11, 1237–1250.
Koch, J., Neal, E.A., Schlott, M.J., et al. (1996) Zinc levels and infections in hospitalized patients with HIV/AIDS. Nutrition 12, 515–518.
Semba, R. (1997) Vitamin A and human immuno-deficiency virus infection. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 57, 459–469.
Greenberg, B., Semba, R.D., Vink, P.E., et al. (1997) Vitamin A deficiency and maternal infant transmission of HIV in two metropolitan areas in the United States. AIDS11, 325–332.
Burger, H., Kovacs, A., Weiser, B., et al. (1997) Maternal serum vitamin A levels are not associated with mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in the United States. J. AIDS Hum. Retrovirol. 14. 321–326.
Allard, J., Aghdassi, E., Chau, J., Salit, I., and Walmsley, S. (1998) Oxidative stress and plasma antioxidant micronutrients in humans with HIV infection. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67, 143–147.
Coodley, G., Coodley, M.K., Nelson, H.D., and Loveless, M.O. (1993) Micronutrient concentrations in the HIV wasting syndrome. AIDS 7, 1595–1600.
Pacht, E., Diaz, P., Clanton, T., Hart, J., and Gadek, J.E. (1997) Serum vitamin E decreases in HIV-seropositive subjects over time. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 130, 293–296.
Mastroiacovo, P., Ajassa, C., Berardelli, G., et al. (1996) Antioxidant vitamins and immunodeficiency. Int. J. Vit. Nutr. Res. 66, 141–145.
Look, M., Rockstroh, J.K., Rao, G.S., et al. (1997) Serum selenium, plasma glutathione (GSH) and erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px)-levels in asymptomatic versus symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1)infection. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 51 266–272.
Smith, J., Howells, D.W., Kendall, B., Levinsky, R., and Hyland, K. (1987) Folate deficiency and demyelination in AIDS. Lancet 2, 215.
Falutz, J., Tsoukas, C., and Gold, P. (1998) Zinc as a cofactor in human immunodeficiency virus-induced immunosuppression. JAMA 259, 2850–2851.
Eley, B., Sive, A.A., Abelse, L., et al. (2002) Growth and micronutrient disturbances in stable, HIV-infected children in Cape Town. Ann. Trop. Paediatr. 22, 19–23.
Semba, R., Kumwenda, N., Hoover, D.R., et al. (2000) Assessment of iron status using plasma transferring receptor in pregnant women with and without human immunodeficiency virus infection in Malawi. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 54, 872–877.
Antelman, G., Msamanga, G.I., Spiegelman, D., et al. (2000) Nutritional factors and infectious disease contribute to anemia among pregnant women with Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Tanzania. J. Nutr. 130, 1950–1957.
Keusch, G. and Farthing, M.J.G. (1990) Nutritional aspects of AIDS. Ann. Rev. Nutr.10, 475–501.
Baeten, J., McClelland, R.S., Richardson, B.A., et al. (2002) Vitamin A deficiency and the acute phase response among HIV-1-infected and -uninfected women in Kenya. J. AIDS 31, 243–249.
Pace, G. and Leaf, C.D. (1995) The role of oxidative stress in HIV disease. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 19, 523–528.
Semba, R. (1998) The role of vitamin A and related retinoids in immune function. Nutr. Rev. 56 S38-S48.
Semba, R. (1999) Vitamin A and immunity to viral, bacterial and protozoan infections. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 58, 719–727.
Smith, S., Levy, N.S., and Hayes, C.E. (1987) Impaired immunity in vitamin Adeficient mice. J. Nutr. 117, 857–865.
Alexander, M., Newmark, H., and Miller, R.G. (1985) Oral beta-carotene can increase the number of OKT4+ cells in human blood. Immunol. Leu. 9, 221–224.
Watson, R., Prabhala, R.H., Plezia, P.M., and Alberts, D.S. (1991) Effect of β3-carotene on lymphocyte subpopulations in elderly humans: evidence for a doseresponse relationship. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 53, 90–94.
Semba, R., Muhilal, Ward, B.J., et al. (1993) Abnormal T-cell proportions in vitamin A-deficient children. Lancet 341, 5–8.
Prabhala, R., Garewal, H.S., Hicks, M.J., Sampliner, R.E., and Watson, R.R. (1992) The effects of 13-cis-retinoic acid and beta-carotene on cellular immunity on humans. Cancer 67, 1556–1560.
Semba, R., Muhilal, Scott, A.L., et al. (1992) Depressed immune response to tetanus in children with vitamin A deficiency. J. Nutr. 122, 101–107.
Coutsoudis, A., Kiepiela, P., Coovadia, H., and Broughton, M. (1992) Vitamin A supplementation enhances specific IgG antibody levels and total lymphocyte numbers while improving morbidity in measles. Ped. Inf. Dis. J.11, 203–209.
Fawzi, W., Chalmers, T.C., Herrera, M.G., and Mosteller, F. (1993) Vitamin A supplementation and child mortality: a meta-analysis. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 269, 898–903.
Field, C., Johnson, I.R., and Schley, P.D. (2002) Nutrients and their role in host resistance to infection. J. Leuokocyte Biol. 71, 16–32.
Rivas, C., Vera, J.C., Guaiquil, V.H., et al. (1997) Increased uptake and accumulation of vitamin C in human immunodeficiency virus 1-infected hematopoietic cell lines. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 5814–5820.
Bendich, A. (1988) Antioxidant vitamins and immune responses, in Nutrition and Immunology. (Chandra, R.K. and Alan, R., eds.) Liss, New York, pp. 125–147.
Hemila, H. (1997) Vitamin C and infectious diseases, in Vitamin C in Health and Disease. (Pacler, L. and Fuchs, J.) Marcel Dekker, New York.
Meydani, S., Wu, D., Santos, M.S., and Hayek, M.G. (1995) Antioxidants and immune response in the aged: overview of present evidence. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 62, 1462S-1476S.
Wang, Y., Huang, D.S., Lian, B., and Watson, R.R. (1994) Nutritional status and immune response in mice with murine AIDS are normalized by vitamin E supplementation. J. Nutr. 124, 2024–2032.
Meydani, S., Barklund, P.M., Liu, S., et al. (1990) Vitamin E supplementation enhances cell-mediated immunity in healthy elderly subjects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 52, 557–563.
Meydani, S., Meydani, M., Blumberg, J.B., et al. (1997) Vitamin E supplementation enhances in vivo immune response in healthy elderly: A dose-response study. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 277, 1380–1386.
Meydani, S., Ribaya-Mercado, J.D., Russell, R.M., Sahyoun, N., Morrow, F.D., and Gershoff, S.N. (1991) Vitamin B-6 deficiency impairs interleukin 2 production and lymphocyte proliferation in elderly adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 53, 1275–1280.
Baum, M., Mantero-Atienza, E., Shor-Posner, G., et al. (1991) Association of vitamin B-6 status with parameters of immune function in early HIV-1 infection. J. AIDS 4, 1122–1132.
Bendich, A. and Cohen, M. (1988) B vitamins: effects on specific and non-specific immune responses, in Nutrition and Immunology. (Chandra, R.K. and Alan, R., eds.) Liss, New York, 101–123.
Rotruck, J., Pope, A.L., Ganther, H.E., Swanson, A.B., Hafeman, D.G., and Hoekstra, W.G. (1973) Selenium: biochemical role as a component of glutathione peroxidase. Science 179, 588–590.
Sappey, C., Legrand-Poels, S., Best-Belpomme, M., Favie,r A., Rentier, B., and Piette, J. (1994) Stimulation of glutathione peroxidase activity decreases HIV type 1 activation after oxidative stress. J. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses10, 1451–1461.
Chen, C., Zhou, J., Xu, H., Jiang, Y., and Zhu, G. (1997) Effect of selenium supplementation on mice infected with LP-BM5 MuLV, a murine AIDS model. Biol. Tr. Elem. Res. 59, 187–193.
Peretz, A., Neve, J., Duchateau, J., et al. (1991) Effects of selenium supplementation on immune parameters in gut failure patients on home parenteral nutrition. Nutr. 7, 215–221.
Shankar, A. and Prasad, A.S. (1998) Zinc and immune function: the biological basis of altered resistance to infection. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 68, 447S-463S.
Haraguchi, Y., Sakurai, H., Hussain, S., Anner, B.M., and Hoshino, H. (1999) Inhibition of HIV-1 infection by zinc group metal compounds. Antiviral Res. 43, 132–133.
Baum, M., Shor-Posner, G., and Campa, A. (2000) Zinc status in human immunodeficiency virus infection. J. Nutr. 130, 1421S-1423S.
Black, R. (1998) Therapeutic and preventive effects of zinc on serious childhood infectious diseases in developing countries. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 68, 476S-479S.
Phuapradit, W., Chaturachinda, K., Taneepanichskul, S., Sirivarasry, J., Khupulsup, K., and Lerdvuthisopon, N. (1996) Serum vitamin A and beta-carotene levels in pregnant women infected with human immunodeficiency virus-1. Obstetr. Gynecol. 87, 564–567.
Bogden, J., Kemp, F.W., Han, S., et al. (2000) Status of selected nutrients and progression of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 72, 809–815.
Abrams, B., Duncan, D., and Hertz-Picciotto, I. (1993) A prospective study of dietary intake and acquired immune deficiency syndrome in HIV-seropositive homosexual men. J. AIDS 6, 949–958.
Camp, W., Allen, S., Alvarez, J.O., et al. (1998) Serum retinol and HIV-1 RNA viral load in rapid and slow progressors. J. AIDS Hum. Retrovirol. 18, 401–406.
Kelly, P., Musonda, R., Kafwembe, E., Kaetano, L., Keane, E., and Farthing, M. (1999) Micronutrient supplementation in the AIDS diarrhoea wasting syndrome in Zambia: A randomized controlled trial. AIDS 13, 495–500.
Tang, A., Graham, N.M.H., Chandra, R.K., and Saah, A.J. (1997) Low serum vitamin B-12 concentrations are associated with faster human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) disease progression. J. Nutr. 127,345–351.
Graham, N., Sorenson, D., Odaka, N., et al. (1991) Relationship of serum copper and zinc levels to HIV seropositivity and progression to AIDS. J. AIDS 4, 976–980.
Allavena, C., Dousset, B., May, T., Dubois, F., Canton, P.F.B. (1999) Relationship of trace element, immunological markers, and HIV-1 infection progression. Biol. Tr. Elem. Res. 47, 133–138.
Baum, M., Shor-Posner, G., Lai, S., et al. (1997) High risk of HIV-related mortality is associated with selenium deficiency. J. AIDS Hum. Retrovirol. 15, 370–374.
Campa, A., Shor-Posner, G., Indacochea, F., et al. (1999) Mortality risk in selenium-deficient HIV-positive children. J. AIDS Hum. Retrovirol. 20, 508–513.
Tang, A., Graham, N.M.H., Kirby, A.J., McCall, L.D., Willett, W.C., and Saah, A.J. (1993) Dietary micronutrient intake and risk of progression to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) in Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected homosexual men. Am. J. Epidemiol. 138, 937–951.
Tang, A., Graham, N.M.H., and Saah, A.J. (1996) Effects of micronutient intake on survival in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Am. J. Epidemiol. 143, 1244–1256.
Coodley, G., Nelson, H.D., Loveless, M.O., and Folk, C. (1993) Beta-carotene in HIV infection. J. AIDS 6, 272–276.
Coodley, G., Coodley, M.K., Lusk, R., et al. (1996) Beta-carotene in HIV infection: an extended evaluation. AIDS 10, 967–973.
Semba, R., Lyles, C.M., Margolick, J.B., et al. (1998) Vitamin A supplementation and human immunodeficiency virus load in injection drug users. J. Inf. Dis. 177, 611–616.
Hussey, G., Hughes, J., Potgieter, S., et al. (1996) Vitamin A status and supplementation and its effects on immunity in children with AIDS, XVII International Vitamin A Consultative Group Meeting, Guatemala City, Guatemala, 1996. International Life Sciences Institute, Washington, DC.
Look, M., Rockstroh, J.K., Rao, G.S., et al. (1998) Sodium selenite and N-acetylcysteine in antiretroviral-naive HIV-1-infected patients: a randomized, controlled pilot study. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 28, 389–397.
Coutsoudis, A., Moodley, D., Pillay, K., et al. (1997) Effects of vitamin A supplementation on viral load in HIV-1-infected pregnant women. J. AIDS Hum. Retrovirol. 15, 86–87.
Humphrey, J., Quinn, T., Fine, D., et al. (1999) Short-term effects of large-dose vitamin A supplementation on viral load and immune response in HIV-infected women. J AIDS Hum. Retrovirol. 20, 44–51.
Delmas-Beauvieux, M., Peuchant, E., Couchrouron, A., et al. (1996) The enzymatic antioxidant system in blood and glutathione status in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients: effects of supplementation with selenium or β-carotene. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 64, 101–107.
Kennedy, C., Coutsoudis, A., Kuhn, L., et al. (2000) Randomized controlled trial assessing the effect of vitamin A supplementation on maternal morbidity during pregnancy and postpartum among HIV-infected women. J. AIDS 24, 37–44.
Olmsted, L., Schrauzer, G.N., Flores-Arce, M., and Dowd, J. (1989) Selenium supplementation of symptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infected patients. Biol. Tr. Elem. Res. 20, 59–65.
Allard, J., Aghdassi, E., Chau, J., et al. (1998) Effects of vitamin E and C supplementation on oxidative stress and viral load in HIV-infected subjects. AIDS 12, 1653–1659.
Fawzim W., Msamangam G.I., Weim R., et al. (2003) Effect of providing vitamin supplements to human immunodeficiency virus-infected, lactating mothers on the child’s morbidity and CD4+ cell counts. Clin. Inf. Dis. 36, 1053–1062.
Niki, E., Noguchi, N., Tsuchihashi, H., and Gotoh, N. (1995) Interaction among vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 62, 1322S-1326S.
Villamor, E., Msamanga, G., Spiegelman, D., Antelman, G., Peterson, K.E., and Hunter, D.J. (2002) Effect of multivitamin and vitamin A supplementation on weight gain during pregnancy among HIV-1-infected women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 76, 1082–1090.
Melikian, G., Mmiro, F., Ndugwa, C., et al. (2001) Relation of vitamin A and carotenoid status to growth failure and mortality among Ugandan infants with human immunodeficiency virus. Nutrition 17, 567–572.
Semba, R., Miotti, P.G., Chiphangwi, J.D., et al. (1997) Maternal vitamin A deficiency and child growth failure during human immunodeficiency virus infection. J. AIDS Hum. Retrovirol. 14, 219–222.
Rich, K., Fowler, M.G., Mofenson, L.M., et al. (2000) Maternal and infant factors predicting disease progression in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected infants. Women and Infants Transmission Study Group. Pediatr. 105, e8.
Semba, R., Miotti, PG., Chiphangwi, J.D., et al. (1995) Infant mortality and maternal vitamin A deficiency during human immunodeficiency virus infection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 21, 966–972.
Read, J., Bethel, J., Harris, D.R., et al. (1999) Serum vitamin A concentrations in a North American cohort of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected children. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Intravenous Immunoglobulin Clinical Trial Study Group. Pediatr. Inf. Dis. J. 18, 134–142.
Coutsoudis, A., Bobat, RA., Coovadia, H.M., Kuhn, L., Tsai, W.Y., and Stein‚ Z.A. (1995) The effects of vitamin A supplementation on the morbidity of children born to HIV-infected women. Am. J. Pub. Hlth. 85, 1076–1081.
Fawzi, W., Mbise, R.L., Hertzmark, E., et al. (1999) A randomized trial of vitamin A supplements in relation to mortality among human immunodeficiency virus-infected and uninfected children in Tanzania. Pediatr. Inf. Dis. J. 18, 127–133.
Fawzi, W., Mbise, R., Spiegelman, D., Fataki, M., Hertzmark, E., and Ndossi, G. (2000) Vitamin A supplements and diarrheal and respiratory tract infections among children in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. J. Pediatr. 137, 660–667.
Kumwenda, N., Miotti, P.G., Taha, T.E., et al. (2002) Antenatal vitamin A supplementation increases birth weight and decreases anemia among infants born to human immunodeficiency virus-infected women in Malawi. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35, 618–624.
Fawzi, W. and Hunter, D.J. (1998) Vitamins in HIV disease progression and vertical transmission. Epidemiol. 9, 457–466.
Fawzi, W. (2000) Nutritional factors and vertical transmission of HIV-1. Epidemiology and potential mechanisms. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 918, 99–114.
Graham, N., Bulterys, M., Chao, A., et al. (1993) Effect of maternal vitamin A deficiency on infant mortality and perinatal HIV transmission, Paper presented at the National Conference on Human Retroviruses and Related Infection; December 12–16, Baltimore, Maryland, USA.
Castetbon, K., Manigart, O., Bonard, D., et al. (2000) Maternal vitamin A status and mother-to-child transmission of HIV in West Africa. DITRAME Study Group. AIDS 14, 908–910.
Burns, D., FitzGerald, G., Semba, R., et al. (1999) Vitamin A deficiency and other nutritional indices during pregnancy in human immunodeficiency virus infection: prevalence, clinical correlates, and outcome. Women and Infants Transmission Study Group. Clin. Inf. Dis. 29, 328–334.
Mostad, S., Overbaugh, J., De Vange, D.M., et al. (1997) Hormonal contraception, vitamin A deficiency, and other risk factors for shedding of HIV-1 infected cells from the cervix and vagina. Lancet 350, 922–927.
French, A., Cohen, M.H., Gange, S.J., et al. (2002) Vitamin A deficiency and genital viral burden in women infected with HIV-1. Lancet 359, 1210–1212.
Baeten, J., McClelland, R.S., Overbaugh, J., et al. (2002) Vitamin A supplementation and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 shedding in women: results of a randomized clinical trial. J. Inf. Dis. 185, 1187–1191.
Nduati, R., John, G.C., Richardson, B.A., et al. (1995) Human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected cells in breast milk: association with immunosuppression and vitamin A deficiency. J. Inf. Dis. 172,1461–1468.
Semba, R., Kumwenda, N., Hoover, D.R., et al. (1999) Human immunodeficiency virus load in breast milk, mastitis, and mother-to-child transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J. Inf. Dis. 180, 93–98.
Willumsen, J., Filteau, S.M., Coutsoudis, A., Uebel, K.E., Newell, M.L., and Tomkins, A.M. (2000) Subclinical mastitis as a risk factor for mother-infant HIV transmission. Advances in Exp. Med. Biol. 478, 211–223.
Filteau, S., Rice, A.L., Ball, J.J., et al. (1999) Breast milk immune factors in Bangladeshi women supplemented postpartum with retinol or beta-carotene. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 69, 953–958.
Semba, R. (1998) Nutritional interventions: vitamin A and breastfeeding, Paper presented at the III International Symposium on Global strategies to Prevent Perinatal HIV Transmission; November, 9–10, Valencia, Spain.
Fawzi, W., Msamanga, G.I., Hunter, D., et al. (2000) Randomized trial of vitamin supplements in relation to vertical transmission of HIV-1 in Tanzania. J. AIDS 23, 246–254.
Fawzi, W., Msamanga, G., Hunter, D., et al. (2002) Randomized trial of vitamin supplements in relation to transmission of HIV through breastfeeding and early child mortality. AIDS 16,1935–1944.
Coutsoudis, A., Pillay, K., Spooner, E., Kuhn, L., and Coovadia, H.M. (1999) Randomized trial testing the effect of vitamin A supplementation on pregnancy outcomes and early mother-to-child HIV-1 transmission in Durban, South Africa. South African Vitamin A Study Group. AIDS 13, 1517–1524.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2004 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Kiure, A., Fawzi, W. (2004). HIV. In: Gershwin, M.E., Nestel, P., Keen, C.L. (eds) Handbook of Nutrition and Immunity. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-790-1_14
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-59259-790-1_14
Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ
Print ISBN: 978-1-4684-9864-6
Online ISBN: 978-1-59259-790-1
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive