Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Human Herpesviruses: Varicella and Herpes Zoster

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Viral Infections of Humans

  • 25 Accesses

Abstract

Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes two clinically distinct diseases in humans. Varicella (or chickenpox), resulting from primary infection of a susceptible individual, is a common, extremely contagious, and usually benign acute illness characterized by a generalized vesicular rash. In unvaccinated populations, varicella occurs almost exclusively in children in seasonal epidemics. Like all other herpesviruses, VZV establishes latency following primary infection. Reactivation of latent VZV from sensory ganglia results in herpes zoster (or shingles), a painful localized cutaneous eruption in a dermatomal distribution that is most common among elderly individuals. Thus, varicella results from primary exogenous exposure to VZV, while herpes zoster represents endogenous reactivation of latent VZV that usually occurs decades after the primary infection. The incidence of herpes zoster is about 3–5 cases per 1000 person-years, with a clear association between aging and higher incidence. Overall, the incidence of herpes zoster appears to be increasing. Varicella and herpes zoster can cause significant disease in immunocompetent patients and life-threatening morbidity in immunocompromised patients, but antiviral treatment is available. Varicella and herpes zoster vaccines are highly effective at preventing VZV disease and attendant complications in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised persons. Requirements for universal childhood varicella vaccination in the USA have reduced the incidence of chickenpox (and its complications, including death) by over 95%. More recently, a nonreplicating vaccine for prevention of herpes zoster has been introduced. The recombinant herpes zoster vaccine was about 90% effective in clinical trials, although to date only 30–35% of adults in the USA over the age of 60 have been vaccinated.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abreu ESHB, Corrêa HP, Ribeiro IA, Nascimento VAM, Greco CM, Pinto ICT, Teixeira DC, Diniz LMO, Ribeiro JGL. Impact of six years of routine varicella vaccination on the disease-related hospitalizations at Minas Gerais, Brazil. Vaccine. 2022;40:390–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ACIP. Recommended child and adolescent immunization schedule for ages 18 years or younger (2022).

    Google Scholar 

  • Amlie-Lefond C, Jubelt B. Neurologic manifestations of varicella zoster virus infections. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2009;9:430–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson TC, Masters NB, Guo A, Shepersky L, Leidner AJ, Lee GM, Kotton CN, Dooling KL. Use of recombinant zoster vaccine in immunocompromised adults aged ≥19 years: recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices – United States, 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71:80–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Armenian SH, Han JY, Dunaway TM, Church JA. Safety and immunogenicity of live varicella virus vaccine in children with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2006;25:368–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arness T, Pedersen R, Dierkhising R, Kremers W, Patel R. Varicella zoster virus-associated disease in adult kidney transplant recipients: incidence and risk-factor analysis. Transpl Infect Dis. 2008;10:260–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arvin AM. Humoral and cellular immunity to varicella-zoster virus: an overview. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S58–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baltinas J, Lightman S, Tomkins-Netzer O. Comparing treatment of acute retinal necrosis with either oral valacyclovir or intravenous acyclovir. Am J Ophthalmol. 2018;188:173–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bastidas A, De La Serna J, El Idrissi M, Oostvogels L, Quittet P, López-Jiménez J, Vural F, Pohlreich D, Zuckerman T, Issa NC, Gaidano G, Lee JJ, Abhyankar S, Solano C, Perez De Oteyza J, Satlin MJ, Schwartz S, Campins M, Rocci A, Vallejo Llamas C, Lee DG, Tan SM, Johnston AM, Grigg A, Boeckh MJ, Campora L, Lopez-Fauqued M, Heineman TC, Stadtmauer EA, Sullivan KM. Effect of recombinant zoster vaccine on incidence of herpes zoster after autologous stem cell transplantation: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. 2019;322:123–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baxter R, Bartlett J, Fireman B, Marks M, Hansen J, Lewis E, Aukes L, Chen Y, Klein NP, Saddier P. Long-term effectiveness of the live zoster vaccine in preventing shingles: a cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 2018;187:161–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benbernou A, Drolet M, Levin MJ, Schmader KE, Oxman MN, Johnson R, Patrick D, Camden S, Mansi JA, Brisson M. Association between prodromal pain and the severity of acute herpes zoster and utilization of health care resources. Eur J Pain. 2011;15:1100–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz EM, Moyle G, Stellbrink HJ, Schürmann D, Kegg S, Stoll M, El Idrissi M, Oostvogels L, Heineman TC. Safety and immunogenicity of an adjuvanted herpes zoster subunit candidate vaccine in HIV-infected adults: a phase 1/2a randomized, placebo-controlled study. J Infect Dis. 2015;211:1279–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berlinberg EJ, Kim E, Deiner MS, Patterson C, Porco TC, Acharya NR. Seasonality of herpes zoster and herpes zoster ophthalmicus. J Clin Virol. 2020;126:104306.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Boeckh M, Kim HW, Flowers ME, Meyers JD, Bowden RA. Long-term acyclovir for prevention of varicella zoster virus disease after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation – a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Blood. 2006;107:1800–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Borba EF, Ribeiro AC, Martin P, Costa LP, Guedes LK, Bonfa E. Incidence, risk factors, and outcome of herpes zoster in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Clin Rheumatol. 2010;16:119–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Botsford BW, Nguyen VQ, Eller AW. Acute retinal necrosis: difference in outcome by viral type and options for antiviral therapy. Retina. 2021;41:1547–52.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bozzola E, Tozzi AE, Bozzola M, Krzysztofiak A, Valentini D, Grandin A, Villani A. Neurological complications of varicella in childhood: case series and a systematic review of the literature. Vaccine. 2012;30:5785–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breuer J. VZV molecular epidemiology. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2010;342:15–42.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breuer J. Molecular genetic insights into varicella zoster virus (VZV), the vOka vaccine strain, and the pathogenesis of latency and reactivation. J Infect Dis. 2018;218:S75–s80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breuer J, Schmid DS, Gershon AA. Use and limitations of varicella-zoster virus-specific serological testing to evaluate breakthrough disease in vaccinees and to screen for susceptibility to varicella. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S147–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breuer J, Grose C, Norberg P, Tipples G, Schmid DS. A proposal for a common nomenclature for viral clades that form the species varicella-zoster virus: summary of VZV nomenclature meeting 2008, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, 24–25 July 2008. J Gen Virol. 2010;91:821–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Breuer J, Pacou M, Gauthier A, Brown MM. Herpes zoster as a risk factor for stroke and TIA: a retrospective cohort study in the UK. Neurology. 2014;82:206–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brisson M, Pellissier JM, Camden S, Quach C, De Wals P. The potential cost-effectiveness of vaccination against herpes zoster and post-herpetic neuralgia. Hum Vaccin. 2008;4:238–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brotons M, Campins M, Mendez L, Juste C, Rodrigo JA, Martinez X, Hermosilla E, Pinos L, Vaque J. Effectiveness of varicella vaccines as postexposure prophylaxis. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010;29:10–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buntinx F, Bartholomeeusen S, Belmans A, Mathei C, Opdenakker G, Sweldens K, Truyers C, Van Ranst M. Association between recent herpes zoster but not herpes simplex infection and subsequent risk of malignancy in women: a retrospective cohort study. Epidemiol Infect. 2014;142:1008–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Butler NJ, Moradi A, Salek SS, Burkholder BM, Leung TG, Dunn JP, Thorne JE. Acute retinal necrosis: presenting characteristics and clinical outcomes in a cohort of polymerase chain reaction-positive patients. Am J Ophthalmol. 2017;179:179–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calabrese LH, Xie F, Yun H, Winthrop KL, Baddley JW, Calabrese C, Curtis JR. Herpes zoster and the risk of stroke in patients with autoimmune diseases. Arthritis Rheumatol. 2017;69:439–46.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Carville KS, Riddell MA, Kelly HA. A decline in varicella but an uncertain impact on zoster following varicella vaccination in Victoria, Australia. Vaccine. 2010;28:2532–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centers For Disease, C. & Prevention 2012a. Evolution of varicella surveillance – selected states, 2000–2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 61, 609–612.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers For Disease, C. & Prevention 2012b. National, state, and local area vaccination coverage among children aged 19–35 months – United States, 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 61, 689–696.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers For Disease, C. P. Updated recommendations for use of VariZIG – United States, 2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013;62:574–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chakravarty E, Michaud K, Katz R, Wolfe F. Increased incidence of herpes zoster among patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lupus. 2012;22:238–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman RS, Cross KW, Fleming DM. The incidence of shingles and its implications for vaccination policy. Vaccine. 2003;21:2541–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaves SS, Haber P, Walton K, Wise RP, Izurieta HS, Schmid DS, Seward JF. Safety of varicella vaccine after licensure in the United States: experience from reports to the vaccine adverse event reporting system, 1995–2005. J Infect Dis. 2008a;197(Suppl 2):S170–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaves SS, Zhang J, Civen R, Watson BM, Carbajal T, Perella D, Seward JF. Varicella disease among vaccinated persons: clinical and epidemiological characteristics, 1997–2005. J Infect Dis. 2008b;197(Suppl 2):S127–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chaves SS, Lopez AS, Watson TL, Civen R, Watson B, Mascola L, Seward JF. Varicella in infants after implementation of the US varicella vaccination program. Pediatrics. 2011;128:1071–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen SY, Suaya JA, Li Q, Galindo CM, Misurski D, Burstin S, Levin MJ. Incidence of herpes zoster in patients with altered immune function. Infection. 2014;42:325–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chiner E, Ballester I, Betlloch I, Blanquer J, Aguar MC, Blanquer R, Fernandez-Fabrellas E, Andreu AL, Briones M, Sanz F. Varicella-zoster virus pneumonia in an adult population: has mortality decreased? Scand J Infect Dis. 2010;42:215–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chisholm C, Lopez L. Cutaneous infections caused by Herpesviridae: a review. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2011;135:1357–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chris Maple PA, Gunn A, Sellwood J, Brown DW, Gray JJ. Comparison of fifteen commercial assays for detecting varicella zoster virus IgG with reference to a time resolved fluorescence immunoassay (TRFIA) and the performance of two commercial assays for screening sera from immunocompromised individuals. J Virol Methods. 2009;155:143–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chun C, Weinmann S, Riedlinger K, Mullooly JP, Houston H, Schmid DS, Seward JF. Laboratory characteristics of suspected herpes zoster in vaccinated children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30:719–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ciccone S, Faggioli R, Calzolari F, Sartori S, Calderone M, Borgna-Pignatti C. Stroke after varicella-zoster infection: report of a case and review of the literature. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010;29:864–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Civen R, Lopez AS, Zhang J, Garcia-Herrera J, Schmid DS, Chaves SS, Mascola L. Varicella outbreak epidemiology in an active surveillance site, 1995–2005. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S114–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Civen R, Chaves SS, Jumaan A, Wu H, Mascola L, Gargiullo P, Seward JF. The incidence and clinical characteristics of herpes zoster among children and adolescents after implementation of varicella vaccination. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009;28:954–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen JI. Rodent models of varicella-zoster virus neurotropism. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2010a;342:277–89.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen JI. The varicella-zoster virus genome. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2010b;342:1–14.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen JI. Clinical practice: Herpes zoster. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:255–63.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen A, Moschopoulos P, Stiehm RE, Koren G. Congenital varicella syndrome: the evidence for secondary prevention with varicella-zoster immune globulin. CMAJ. 2011;183:204–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cohrs RJ, Gilden DH. Prevalence and abundance of latently transcribed varicella-zoster virus genes in human ganglia. J Virol. 2007;81:2950–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cotton SJ, Belcher J, Rose P, Jagadeesan SK, Neal RD. The risk of a subsequent cancer diagnosis after herpes zoster infection: primary care database study. Br J Cancer. 2013;108:721–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Crosslin DR, Carrell DS, Burt A, Kim DS, Underwood JG, Hanna DS, Comstock BA, Baldwin E, De Andrade M, Kullo IJ, Tromp G, Kuivaniemi H, Borthwick KM, Mccarty CA, Peissig PL, Doheny KF, Pugh E, Kho A, Pacheco J, Hayes MG, Ritchie MD, Verma SS, Armstrong G, Stallings S, Denny JC, Carroll RJ, Crawford DC, Crane PK, Mukherjee S, Bottinger E, Li R, Keating B, Mirel DB, Carlson CS, Harley JB, Larson EB, Jarvik GP. Genetic variation in the HLA region is associated with susceptibility to herpes zoster. Genes Immun. 2015;16:1–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham AL, Levin MJ. Herpes zoster vaccines. J Infect Dis. 2018;218:S127–s133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham AL, Lal H, Kovac M, Chlibek R, Hwang SJ, Díez-Domingo J, Godeaux O, Levin MJ, Mcelhaney JE, Puig-Barberà J, Vanden Abeele C, Vesikari T, Watanabe D, Zahaf T, Ahonen A, Athan E, Barba-Gomez JF, Campora L, De Looze F, Downey HJ, Ghesquiere W, Gorfinkel I, Korhonen T, Leung E, Mcneil SA, Oostvogels L, Rombo L, Smetana J, Weckx L, Yeo W, Heineman TC. Efficacy of the herpes zoster subunit vaccine in adults 70 years of age or older. N Engl J Med. 2016;375:1019–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham AL, Heineman TC, Lal H, Godeaux O, Chlibek R, Hwang SJ, Mcelhaney JE, Vesikari T, Andrews C, Choi WS, Esen M, Ikematsu H, Choma MK, Pauksens K, Ravault S, Salaun B, Schwarz TF, Smetana J, Abeele CV, Van Den Steen P, Vastiau I, Weckx LY, Levin MJ. Immune responses to a recombinant glycoprotein E herpes zoster vaccine in adults aged 50 years or older. J Infect Dis. 2018;217:1750–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dagnew AF, Ilhan O, Lee WS, Woszczyk D, Kwak JY, Bowcock S, Sohn SK, Rodriguez Macías G, Chiou TJ, Quiel D, Aoun M, Navarro Matilla MB, De La Serna J, Milliken S, Murphy J, Mcneil SA, Salaun B, Di Paolo E, Campora L, López-Fauqued M, El Idrissi M, Schuind A, Heineman TC, Van Den Steen P, Oostvogels L. Immunogenicity and safety of the adjuvanted recombinant zoster vaccine in adults with haematological malignancies: a phase 3, randomised, clinical trial and post-hoc efficacy analysis. Lancet Infect Dis. 2019;19:988–1000.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dagnew AF, Klein NP, Hervé C, Kalema G, Di Paolo E, Peterson J, Salaun B, Schuind A. The adjuvanted recombinant zoster vaccine in adults aged ≥65 years previously vaccinated with a live-attenuated herpes zoster vaccine. J Infect Dis. 2021a;224:1139–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dagnew AF, Rausch D, Hervé C, Zahaf T, Levin MJ, Schuind A. Efficacy and serious adverse events profile of the adjuvanted recombinant zoster vaccine in adults with pre-existing potential immune-mediated diseases: a pooled post hoc analysis on two parallel randomized trials. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2021b;60:1226–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dagnew AF, Vink P, Drame M, Willer DO, Salaun B, Schuind AE. Immune responses to the adjuvanted recombinant zoster vaccine in immunocompromised adults: a comprehensive overview. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2021c;17:4132–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Daley AJ, Thorpe S, Garland SM. Varicella and the pregnant woman: prevention and management. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol. 2008;48:26–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Melker H, Berbers G, Hahne S, Rumke H, Van Den Hof S, De Wit A, Boot H. The epidemiology of varicella and herpes zoster in The Netherlands: implications for varicella zoster virus vaccination. Vaccine. 2006;24:3946–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Debiec MR, Lindeke-Myers AT, Shantha JG, Bergstrom CS, Hubbard GB 3rd, Yeh S. Outcomes of combination systemic and intravitreal antiviral therapy for acute retinal necrosis. Ophthalmol Retina. 2021;5:292–300.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donahue JG, Kieke BA, Yih WK, Berger NR, Mccauley JS, Baggs J, Zangwill KM, Baxter R, Eriksen EM, Glanz JM, Hambidge SJ, Klein NP, Lewis EM, Marcy SM, Naleway AL, Nordin JD, Ray P, Belongia EA, Vaccine Safety Datalink T. Varicella vaccination and ischemic stroke in children: is there an association? Pediatrics. 2009;123:e228–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Donahue JG, Kieke BA, Gargiullo PM, Jumaan AO, Berger NR, Mccauley JS, Belongia EA. Herpes zoster and exposure to the varicella zoster virus in an era of varicella vaccination. Am J Public Health. 2010;100:1116–22.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dooling KL, Guo A, Patel M, Lee GM, Moore K, Belongia EA, Harpaz R. Recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices for use of herpes zoster vaccines. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2018;67:103–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Drolet M, Brisson M, Schmader K, Levin M, Johnson R, Oxman M, Patrick D, Camden S, Mansi JA. Predictors of postherpetic neuralgia among patients with herpes zoster: a prospective study. J Pain. 2010;11:1211–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drolet M, Levin MJ, Schmader KE, Johnson R, Oxman MN, Patrick D, Fournier SO, Mansi JA, Brisson M. Employment related productivity loss associated with herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia: a 6-month prospective study. Vaccine. 2012;30:2047–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drolet M, Oxman MN, Levin MJ, Schmader KE, Johnson RW, Patrick D, Mansi JA, Brisson M. Vaccination against herpes zoster in developed countries: state of the evidence. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2013;9

    Google Scholar 

  • Duchon JM, Levin MJ, Gershon AA. Safety and varicella outcomes in in utero-exposed newborns and preterm infants treated with varicella zoster immune globulin (VARIZIG): a subgroup analysis of an expanded-access program. J Pediatr Infect Dis Soc. 2020;9:449–53.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dworkin RH, Johnson RW, Breuer J, Gnann JW, Levin MJ, Backonja M, Betts RF, Gershon AA, Haanpaa ML, Mckendrick MW, Nurmikko TJ, Oaklander AL, Oxman MN, Pavan-Langston D, Petersen KL, Rowbotham MC, Schmader KE, Stacey BR, Tyring SK, Van Wijck AJ, Wallace MS, Wassilew SW, Whitley RJ. Recommendations for the management of herpes zoster. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44(Suppl 1):S1–26.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dworkin RH, White R, O’Connor AB, Hawkins K. Health care expenditure burden of persisting herpes zoster pain. Pain Med. 2008;9:348–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erard V, Guthrie KA, Varley C, Heugel J, Wald A, Flowers ME, Corey L, Boeckh M. One-year acyclovir prophylaxis for preventing varicella-zoster virus disease after hematopoietic cell transplantation: no evidence of rebound varicella-zoster virus disease after drug discontinuation. Blood. 2007;110:3071–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erskine N, Tran H, Levin L, Ulbricht C, Fingeroth J, Kiefe C, Goldberg RJ, Singh S. A systematic review and meta-analysis on herpes zoster and the risk of cardiac and cerebrovascular events. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0181565.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Failla V, Jacques J, Castronovo C, Nikkels AF. Herpes zoster in patients treated with biologicals. Dermatology. 2012;224:251–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Forbes HJ, Bhaskaran K, Thomas SL, Smeeth L, Clayton T, Langan SM. Quantification of risk factors for herpes zoster: population based case-control study. BMJ. 2014;348:g2911.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Forbes H, Douglas I, Finn A, Breuer J, Bhaskaran K, Smeeth L, Packer S, Langan SM, Mansfield KE, Marlow R, Whitaker H, Warren-Gash C. Risk of herpes zoster after exposure to varicella to explore the exogenous boosting hypothesis: self controlled case series study using UK electronic healthcare data. BMJ. 2020;368:l6987.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Furth SL, Fivush BA. Varicella vaccination in pediatric kidney transplant candidates. Pediatr Transplant. 2002;6:97–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fusco D, Krawitz P, Larussa P, Steinberg S, Gershon A, Jacobs J. VZV meningitis following varicella vaccine. J Clin Virol. 2010;48:275–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gaillat J, Gajdos V, Launay O, Malvy D, Demoures B, Lewden L, Pinchinat S, Derrough T, Sana C, Caulin E, Soubeyrand B. Does monastic life predispose to the risk of Saint Anthony’s fire (herpes zoster)? Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:405–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galea SA, Sweet A, Beninger P, Steinberg SP, Larussa PS, Gershon AA, Sharrar RG. The safety profile of varicella vaccine: a 10-year review. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S165–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gans H, Chemaly RF. Varicella zoster immune globulin (human) (VARIZIG) in immunocompromised patients: a subgroup analysis for safety and outcomes from a large, expanded-access program. BMC Infect Dis. 2021;21:46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gatti A, Pica F, Boccia MT, De Antoni F, Sabato AF, Volpi A. No evidence of family history as a risk factor for herpes zoster in patients with post-herpetic neuralgia. J Med Virol. 2010;82:1007–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geel A, Zuidema W, Van Gelder T, Van Doornum G, Weimar W. Successful vaccination against varicella zoster virus prior to kidney transplantation. Transplant Proc. 2005;37:952–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geel AL, Landman TS, Kal JA, Van Doomum GJ, Weimar W. Varicella zoster virus serostatus before and after kidney transplantation, and vaccination of adult kidney transplant candidates. Transplant Proc. 2006;38:3418–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gershon AA, Gershon MD, Breuer J, Levin MJ, Oaklander AL, Griffiths PD. Advances in the understanding of the pathogenesis and epidemiology of herpes zoster. J Clin Virol. 2010;48(Suppl 1):S2–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gershon AA, Chen J, Davis L, Krinsky C, Cowles R, Reichard R, Gershon M. Latency of varicella zoster virus in dorsal root, cranial, and enteric ganglia in vaccinated children. Trans Am Clin Climatol Assoc. 2012;123:17–35.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gershon AA, Gershon MD, Shapiro ED. Live attenuated varicella vaccine: prevention of varicella and of zoster. J Infect Dis. 2021;224:S387–s397.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ghaznawi N, Virdi A, Dayan A, Hammersmith KM, Rapuano CJ, Laibson PR, Cohen EJ. Herpes zoster ophthalmicus: comparison of disease in patients 60 years and older versus younger than 60 years. Ophthalmology. 2011;118:2242–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giannelos N, Ng C, Curran D. Cost-effectiveness of the recombinant zoster vaccine (RZV) against herpes zoster: An updated critical review. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2023;19(1):2168952. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2023.2168952. Published online 2023 Mar 14. PMCID: PMC10054181 PMID: 36916240

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert L, Wang X, Deiss R, Okulicz J, Maves R, Schofield C, Ferguson T, Whitman T, Kronmann K, Agan B, Ganesan A. Herpes zoster rates continue to decline in people living with human immunodeficiency virus but remain higher than rates reported in the general US population. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;69:155–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilden D, Cohrs RJ, Mahalingam R, Nagel MA. Varicella zoster virus vasculopathies: diverse clinical manifestations, laboratory features, pathogenesis, and treatment. Lancet Neurol. 2009;8:731–40.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gilden D, Cohrs RJ, Mahalingam R, Nagel MA. Neurological disease produced by varicella zoster virus reactivation without rash. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2010;342:243–53.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gilron I, Bailey JM, Tu D, Holden RR, Weaver DF, Houlden RL. Morphine, gabapentin, or their combination for neuropathic pain. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1324–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gnann JW Jr. Varicella-zoster virus: prevention through vaccination. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2012;55:560–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gore DM, Gore SK, Visser L. Progressive outer retinal necrosis: outcomes in the intravitreal era. Arch Ophthalmol. 2012;130:700–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gourishankar S, Mcdermid JC, Jhangri GS, Preiksaitis JK. Herpes zoster infection following solid organ transplantation: incidence, risk factors and outcomes in the current immunosuppressive era. Am J Transplant. 2004;4:108–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grupping K, Campora L, Douha M, Heineman TC, Klein NP, Lal H, Peterson J, Vastiau I, Oostvogels L. Immunogenicity and safety of the HZ/su adjuvanted herpes zoster subunit vaccine in adults previously vaccinated with a live attenuated herpes zoster vaccine. J Infect Dis. 2017;216:1343–51.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Guris D, Jumaan AO, Mascola L, Watson BM, Zhang JX, Chaves SS, Gargiullo P, Perella D, Civen R, Seward JF. Changing varicella epidemiology in active surveillance sites – United States, 1995–2005. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S71–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Habel LA, Ray GT, Silverberg MJ, Horberg MA, Yawn BP, Castillo AL, Quesenberry CP Jr, Li Y, Sadier P, Tran TN. The epidemiology of herpes zoster in patients with newly diagnosed cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2013;22:82–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haberthur K, Engelmann F, Park B, Barron A, Legasse A, Dewane J, Fischer M, Kerns A, Brown M, Messaoudi I. CD4 T cell immunity is critical for the control of simian varicella virus infection in a nonhuman primate model of VZV infection. PLoS Pathog. 2011;7:e1002367.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Han Y, Zhang J, Chen N, He L, Zhou M, Zhu C. Corticosteroids for preventing postherpetic neuralgia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;Cd005582

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansson E, Forbes HJ, Langan SM, Smeeth L, Bhaskaran K. Herpes zoster risk after 21 specific cancers: population-based case-control study. Br J Cancer. 2017;116:1643–51.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harbecke R, Cohen JI, Oxman MN. Herpes zoster vaccines. J Infect Dis. 2021;224:S429–s442.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Harder T, Siedler A. Systematic review and meta-analysis of chickenpox vaccination and risk of herpes zoster: a quantitative view on the “exogenous boosting hypothesis”. Clin Infect Dis. 2019;69:1329–38.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harpaz R. Do varicella vaccination programs change the epidemiology of herpes zoster? A comprehensive review, with focus on the United States. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2019;18:793–811.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harpaz R. The effectiveness of recombinant zoster vaccine: observations in the wild. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:957–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harpaz R, Leung JW. The epidemiology of herpes zoster in the United States during the era of varicella and herpes zoster vaccines: changing patterns among children. Clin Infect Dis. 2019a;69:345–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harpaz R, Leung JW. The epidemiology of herpes zoster in the United States during the era of varicella and herpes zoster vaccines: changing patterns among older adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2019b;69:341–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harpaz R, Van Hoek AJ. Point-counterpoint: the Hope-Simpson hypothesis and its implications regarding an effect of routine varicella vaccination on herpes zoster incidence. J Infect Dis. 2018;218:S57–s62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harpaz R, Leung JW, Brown CJ, Zhou FJ. Psychological stress as a trigger for herpes zoster: might the conventional wisdom be wrong? Clin Infect Dis. 2015;60:781–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hata A, Kuniyoshi M, Ohkusa Y. Risk of herpes zoster in patients with underlying diseases: a retrospective hospital-based cohort study. Infection. 2011;39:537–44.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hedayatfar A, Ebrahimiadib N, Zarei M, Ashraf Khorasani M, Mahbod M, Asgari S, Sedaghat A. Acute retinal necrosis: clinical manifestation and long-term visual outcomes in a series of polymerase chain reaction-positive patients. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2021;31:1961–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herlin LK, Hansen KS, Bodilsen J, Larsen L, Brandt C, Andersen C, Hansen BR, Lüttichau HR, Helweg-Larsen J, Wiese L, Storgaard M, Nielsen H, Mogensen TH. Varicella zoster virus encephalitis in Denmark from 2015 to 2019-a nationwide prospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;72:1192–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hernandez PO, Javed S, Mendoza N, Lapolla W, Hicks LD, Tyring SK. Family history and herpes zoster risk in the era of shingles vaccination. J Clin Virol. 2011;52:344–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herrero JI, Quiroga J, Sangro B, Pardo F, Rotellar F, Alvarez-Cienfuegos J, Prieto J. Herpes zoster after liver transplantation: incidence, risk factors, and complications. Liver Transpl. 2004;10:1140–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hesse EM, Shimabukuro TT, Su JR, Hibbs BF, Dooling KL, Goud R, Lewis P, Ng CS, Cano MV. Postlicensure safety surveillance of recombinant zoster vaccine (Shingrix) – United States, October 2017-June 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2019;68:91–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hicks LD, Cook-Norris RH, Mendoza N, Madkan V, Arora A, Tyring SK. Family history as a risk factor for herpes zoster: a case-control study. Arch Dermatol. 2008;144:603–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horien C, Grose C. Neurovirulence of varicella and the live attenuated varicella vaccine virus. Semin Pediatr Neurol. 2012;19:124–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Immunization Action Coalition. Varicella Vaccine Mandates for Childcare and K-12. 2020. https://www.immunize.org/laws/varicella.asp. Access 03 July 2022.

  • Imohl M, Van Der Linden M, Reinert RR, Ritter K. Invasive group A streptococcal disease and association with varicella in Germany, 1996–2009. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 2011;62:101–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Insinga RP, Itzler RF, Pellissier JM, Saddier P, Nikas AA. The incidence of herpes zoster in a United States administrative database. J Gen Intern Med. 2005;20:748–53.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ittner EA, Bhakhri R, Newman T. Necrotising herpetic retinopathies: a review and progressive outer retinal necrosis case report. Clin Exp Optom. 2016;99:24–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Izurieta HS, Wu X, Forshee R, Lu Y, Sung HM, Agger PE, Chillarige Y, Link-Gelles R, Lufkin B, Wernecke M, Macurdy TE, Kelman J, Dooling K. Recombinant zoster vaccine (Shingrix): real-world effectiveness in the first 2 years post-licensure. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:941–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson LA, Reynolds MA, Harpaz R. Hospitalizations to treat herpes zoster in older adults: causes and validated rates. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;47:754–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsen SJ, Ackerson BK, Sy LS, Tran TN, Jones TL, Yao JF, Xie F, Cheetham TC, Saddier P. Observational safety study of febrile convulsion following first dose MMRV vaccination in a managed care setting. Vaccine. 2009;27:4656–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jardine A, Conaty SJ, Vally H. Herpes zoster in Australia: evidence of increase in incidence in adults attributable to varicella immunization? Epidemiol Infect. 2011;139:658–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Javed S, Javed SA, Tyring SK. Varicella vaccines. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2012;25:135–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson RW. Herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2010;9:21–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson RW, Mcelhaney J. Postherpetic neuralgia in the elderly. Int J Clin Pract. 2009;63:1386–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson RW, Rice AS. Clinical practice. Postherpetic neuralgia. N Engl J Med. 2014;371:1526–33.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson BH, Palmer L, Gatwood J, Lenhart G, Kawai K, Acosta CJ. Annual incidence rates of herpes zoster among an immunocompetent population in the United States. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:502.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jones D, Como CN, Jing L, Blackmon A, Neff CP, Krueger O, Bubak AN, Palmer BE, Koelle DM, Nagel MA. Varicella zoster virus productively infects human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to modulate expression of immunoinhibitory proteins and blocking PD-L1 enhances virus-specific CD8+ T cell effector function. PLoS Pathog. 2019;15:e1007650.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Julia JJ, Cholhan HJ. Herpes zoster-associated acute urinary retention: a case report. Int Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct. 2007;18:103–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jumaan AO, Yu O, Jackson LA, Bohlke K, Galil K, Seward JF. Incidence of herpes zoster, before and after varicella-vaccination-associated decreases in the incidence of varicella, 1992–2002. J Infect Dis. 2005;191:2002–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalpoe JS, Kroes AC, Verkerk S, Claas EC, Barge RM, Beersma MF. Clinical relevance of quantitative varicella-zoster virus (VZV) DNA detection in plasma after stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2006;38:41–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kang JH, Ho JD, Chen YH, Lin HC. Increased risk of stroke after a herpes zoster attack: a population-based follow-up study. Stroke. 2009;40:3443–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kano H, Mizuta K, Sakakihara Y, Kato H, Miki Y, Shibuya N, Saito M, Narita M, Kawarasaki H, Igarashi T, Hashizume K, Iwata T. Efficacy and safety of immunization for pre- and post- liver transplant children. Transplantation. 2002;74:543–50.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kattan JA, Sosa LE, Bohnwagner HD, Hadler JL. Impact of 2-dose vaccination on varicella epidemiology: Connecticut – 2005–2008. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:509–12.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kawai K, Yawn BP. Risk factors for herpes zoster: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2017;92:1806–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kawai K, Gebremeskel BG, Acosta CJ. Systematic review of incidence and complications of herpes zoster: towards a global perspective. BMJ Open. 2014;4:e004833.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kawai K, Vopham T, Drucker A, Curhan SG, Curhan GC. Ultraviolet radiation exposure and the risk of herpes zoster in three prospective cohort studies. Mayo Clin Proc. 2020;95:283–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy PG, Cohrs RJ. Varicella-zoster virus human ganglionic latency: a current summary. J Neurovirol. 2010;16:411–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khandaker G, Marshall H, Peadon E, Zurynski Y, Burgner D, Buttery J, Gold M, Nissen M, Elliott EJ, Burgess M, Booy R. Congenital and neonatal varicella: impact of the national varicella vaccination programme in Australia. Arch Dis Child. 2011;96:453–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim SJ, Equi R, Belair ML, Fine HF, Dunn JP. Long-term preservation of vision in progressive outer retinal necrosis treated with combination antiviral drugs and highly active antiretroviral therapy. Ocul Immunol Inflamm. 2007;15:425–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim DH, Kumar D, Messner HA, Minden M, Gupta V, Kuruvilla J, Chae YS, Sohn SK, Lipton JH. Clinical efficacy of prophylactic strategy of long-term low-dose acyclovir for varicella-zoster virus infection after allogeneic peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Clin Transpl. 2008;22:770–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim J, Jeon J, Lee HS, Lee KY. Association between the risk for cardiovascular events and antiviral treatment for herpes zoster. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:758–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klaric JS, Beltran TA, Mcclenathan BM. An association between herpes zoster vaccination and stroke reduction among elderly individuals. Mil Med. 2019;184:126–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein A, Miller KB, Sprague K, Desjardin JA, Snydman DR. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of valacyclovir prophylaxis to prevent zoster recurrence from months 4 to 24 after BMT. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2011;46:294–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klompas M, Kulldorff M, Vilk Y, Bialek SR, Harpaz R. Herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia surveillance using structured electronic data. Mayo Clin Proc. 2011;86:1146–53.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kong CL, Thompson RR, Porco TC, Kim E, Acharya NR. Incidence rate of herpes zoster ophthalmicus: a retrospective cohort Study from 1994 through 2018. Ophthalmology. 2020;127:324–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koo S, Gagne LS, Lee P, Pratibhu PP, James LM, Givertz MM, Marty FM. Incidence and risk factors for herpes zoster following heart transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis. 2014;16:17–25.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kraft JN, Shaw JC. Varicella infection caused by Oka strain vaccine in a heart transplant recipient. Arch Dermatol. 2006;142:943–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kronenberg A, Bossart W, Wuthrich RP, Cao C, Lautenschlager S, Wiegand ND, Mullhaupt B, Noll G, Mueller NJ, Speck RF. Retrospective analysis of varicella zoster virus (VZV) copy DNA numbers in plasma of immunocompetent patients with herpes zoster, of immunocompromised patients with disseminated VZV disease, and of asymptomatic solid organ transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis. 2005;7:116–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kussmaul SC, Horn BN, Dvorak CC, Abramovitz L, Cowan MJ, Weintrub PS. Safety of the live, attenuated varicella vaccine in pediatric recipients of hematopoietic SCTs. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2010;45:1602–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • L’Huillier AG, Hirzel C, Ferreira VH, Ierullo M, Ku T, Selzner N, Schiff J, Juvet S, Miao C, Schmid DS, Humar A, Kumar D. Evaluation of recombinant herpes zoster vaccine for primary immunization of varicella-seronegative transplant recipients. Transplantation. 2021;105:2316–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lachiewicz AM, Srinivas ML. Varicella-zoster virus post-exposure management and prophylaxis: a review. Prev Med Rep. 2019;16:101016.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Laing KJ, Ouwendijk WJD, Koelle DM, Verjans G. Immunobiology of varicella-zoster virus Infection. J Infect Dis. 2018;218:S68–s74.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lal H, Cunningham AL, Godeaux O, Chlibek R, Diez-Domingo J, Hwang SJ, Levin MJ, Mcelhaney JE, Poder A, Puig-Barberà J, Vesikari T, Watanabe D, Weckx L, Zahaf T, Heineman TC. Efficacy of an adjuvanted herpes zoster subunit vaccine in older adults. N Engl J Med. 2015;372:2087–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamont RF, Sobel JD, Carrington D, Mazaki-Tovi S, Kusanovic JP, Vaisbuch E, Romero R. Varicella-zoster virus (chickenpox) infection in pregnancy. BJOG. 2011;118:1155–62.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Langan SM, Minassian C, Smeeth L, Thomas SL. Risk of stroke following herpes zoster: a self-controlled case-series study. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:1497–503.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lee CJ, Savani BN, Ljungman P. Varicella zoster virus reactivation in adult survivors of hematopoietic cell transplantation: how do we best protect our patients? Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2018;24:1783–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leroux-Roels I, Leroux-Roels G, Clement F, Vandepapeliere P, Vassilev V, Ledent E, Heineman TC. A phase 1/2 clinical trial evaluating safety and immunogenicity of a varicella zoster glycoprotein e subunit vaccine candidate in young and older adults. J Infect Dis. 2012;206:1280–90.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leung J, Marin M. Update on trends in varicella mortality during the varicella vaccine era-United States, 1990–2016. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2018;14:2460–3.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Leung J, Harpaz R, Baughman AL, Heath K, Loparev V, Vazquez M, Watson BM, Schmid DS. Evaluation of laboratory methods for diagnosis of varicella. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;51:23–32.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leung J, Harpaz R, Molinari NA, Jumaan A, Zhou F. Herpes zoster incidence among insured persons in the United States, 1993–2006: evaluation of impact of varicella vaccination. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:332–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leung J, Broder KR, Marin M. Severe varicella in persons vaccinated with varicella vaccine (breakthrough varicella): a systematic literature review. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2017;16:391–400.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Levin MJ. Varicella vaccination of immunocompromised children. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S200–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levin MJ. Immune senescence and vaccines to prevent herpes zoster in older persons. Curr Opin Immunol. 2012;24:494–500.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levin MJ, Weinberg A. Adjuvanted recombinant glycoprotein E herpes zoster vaccine. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;70:1509–15.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levin MJ, Anderson JP, Seage GR 3rd, Williams PL. Short-term and long-term effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy on the incidence of herpes zoster in HIV-infected children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;50:182–91.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Levin MJ, Duchon JM, Swamy GK, Gershon AA. Varicella zoster immune globulin (VARIZIG) administration up to 10 days after varicella exposure in pregnant women, immunocompromised participants, and infants: varicella outcomes and safety results from a large, open-label, expanded-access program. PLoS One. 2019;14:e0217749.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lian Y, Zhu Y, Tang F, Yang B, Duan R. Herpes zoster and the risk of ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2017;12:e0171182.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Liu YC, Yang YH, Hsiao HH, Yang WC, Liu TC, Chang CS, Yang MY, Lin PM, Hsu JF, Chang PY, Lin SF. Herpes zoster is associated with an increased risk of subsequent lymphoid malignancies – a nationwide population-based matched-control study in Taiwan. BMC Cancer. 2012;12:503.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez AS, Burnett-Hartman A, Nambiar R, Ritz L, Owens P, Loparev VN, Guris D, Schmid DS. Transmission of a newly characterized strain of varicella-zoster virus from a patient with herpes zoster in a long-term-care facility, West Virginia, 2004. J Infect Dis. 2008;197:646–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez AS, Zhang J, Brown C, Bialek S. Varicella-related hospitalizations in the United States, 2000–2006: the 1-dose varicella vaccination era. Pediatrics. 2011;127:238–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lu L, Suo L, Li J, Zhai L, Zheng Q, Pang X, Bialek SR, Wang C. A varicella outbreak in a school with high one-dose vaccination coverage, Beijing, China. Vaccine. 2012;30:5094–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Macartney K, Mcintyre P. Vaccines for post-exposure prophylaxis against varicella (chickenpox) in children and adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008:CD001833.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahale P, Yanik EL, Engels EA. Herpes zoster and risk of cancer in the elderly U.S. population. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2016;25:28–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mandelbrot L. Fetal varicella – diagnosis, management, and outcome. Prenat Diagn. 2012;32:511–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Manuel O, Kumar D, Singer LG, Cobos I, Humar A. Incidence and clinical characteristics of herpes zoster after lung transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2008;27:11–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marin M, Guris D, Chaves SS, Schmid S, Seward JF. Prevention of varicella: recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 2007;56:1–40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marin M, Meissner HC, Seward JF. Varicella prevention in the United States: a review of successes and challenges. Pediatrics. 2008a;122:e744–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marin M, Watson TL, Chaves SS, Civen R, Watson BM, Zhang JX, Perella D, Mascola L, Seward JF. Varicella among adults: data from an active surveillance project, 1995–2005. J Infect Dis. 2008b;197(Suppl 2):S94–S100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marra F, Lo E, Kalashnikov V, Richardson K. Risk of herpes zoster in individuals on biologics, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs, and/or corticosteroids for autoimmune diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2016;3:ofw205.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer CS, Blobner K, Storr J, Baur ID, Khoramnia R. Acute retinal necrosis: signs, treatment, complications and outcome. Diagnostics (Basel). 2022;12

    Google Scholar 

  • Mcdonald JR, Zeringue AL, Caplan L, Ranganathan P, Xian H, Burroughs TE, Fraser VJ, Cunningham F, Eisen SA. Herpes zoster risk factors in a national cohort of veterans with rheumatoid arthritis. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48:1364–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mcdonald EM, De Kock J, Ram FS. Antivirals for management of herpes zoster including ophthalmicus: a systematic review of high-quality randomized controlled trials. Antivir Ther. 2012;17:255–64.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mckay SL, Guo A, Pergam SA, Dooling K. Herpes zoster risk in immunocompromised adults in the United States: a systematic review. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:e125–34.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mckendrick MW, Ogan P, Care CC. A 9 year follow up of post herpetic neuralgia and predisposing factors in elderly patients following herpes zoster. J Infect. 2009;59:416–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mehta SK, Tyring SK, Gilden DH, Cohrs RJ, Leal MJ, Castro VA, Feiveson AH, Ott CM, Pierson DL. Varicella-zoster virus in the saliva of patients with herpes zoster. J Infect Dis. 2008;197:654–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Messaoudi I, Barron A, Wellish M, Engelmann F, Legasse A, Planer S, Gilden D, Nikolich-Zugich J, Mahalingam R. Simian varicella virus infection of rhesus macaques recapitulates essential features of varicella zoster virus infection in humans. PLoS Pathog. 2009;5:e1000657.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Michalik DE, Steinberg SP, Larussa PS, Edwards KM, Wright PF, Arvin AM, Gans HA, Gershon AA. Primary vaccine failure after 1 dose of varicella vaccine in healthy children. J Infect Dis. 2008;197:944–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Minassian C, Thomas SL, Smeeth L, Douglas I, Brauer R, Langan SM. Acute cardiovascular events after herpes zoster: a self-controlled case series analysis in vaccinated and unvaccinated older residents of the United States. PLoS Med. 2015;12:e1001919.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Minodier P, Chaumoitre K, Vialet R, Imbert G, Bidet P. Fatal streptococcal toxic shock syndrome in a child with varicella and necrotizing fasciitis of the face. Eur J Emerg Med. 2008;15:231–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Minodier P, Bidet P, Rallu F, Tapiero B, Bingen E, Ovetchkine P. Clinical and microbiologic characteristics of group A streptococcal necrotizing fasciitis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009;28:541–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moanna A, Rimland D. Decreasing incidence of herpes zoster in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;57:122–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mols JF, Ledent E, Heineman TC. Sampling of herpes zoster skin lesion types and the impact on viral DNA detection. J Virol Methods. 2012;188:145–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morant-Talamante N, Diez-Domingo J, Martínez-Úbeda S, Puig-Barberá J, Alemán-Sánchez S, Pérez-Breva L. Herpes zoster surveillance using electronic databases in the Valencian community (Spain). BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13:463.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mullooly JP, Riedlinger K, Chun C, Weinmann S, Houston H. Incidence of herpes zoster, 1997–2002. Epidemiol Infect. 2005;133:245–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Murthy N, Wodi AP, Bernstein H, Ault KA. Recommended adult immunization schedule, United States, 2022. Ann Intern Med. 2022;

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagel MA, Bubak AN. Varicella zoster virus vasculopathy. J Infect Dis. 2018;218:S107–s112.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nagel MA, Cohrs RJ, Mahalingam R, Wellish MC, Forghani B, Schiller A, Safdieh JE, Kamenkovich E, Ostrow LW, Levy M, Greenberg B, Russman AN, Katzan I, Gardner CJ, Hausler M, Nau R, Saraya T, Wada H, Goto H, De Martino M, Ueno M, Brown WD, Terborg C, Gilden DH. The varicella zoster virus vasculopathies: clinical, CSF, imaging, and virologic features. Neurology. 2008;70:853–60.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nagel MA, Choe A, Cohrs RJ, Traktinskiy I, Sorensen K, Mehta SK, Pierson DL, Tyring SK, Haitz K, Digiorgio C, Lapolla W, Gilden D. Persistence of varicella zoster virus DNA in saliva after herpes zoster. J Infect Dis. 2011a;204:820–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nagel MA, Traktinskiy I, Azarkh Y, Kleinschmidt-Demasters B, Hedley-Whyte T, Russman A, Vanegmond EM, Stenmark K, Frid M, Mahalingam R, Wellish M, Choe A, Cordery-Cotter R, Cohrs RJ, Gilden D. Varicella zoster virus vasculopathy: analysis of virus-infected arteries. Neurology. 2011b;77:364–70.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Neu AM. Indications for varicella vaccination post-transplant. Pediatr Transplant. 2005;9:141–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neubauer V, Griesmaier E, Trawoger R, Kiechl-Kohlendorfer U. Congenital varicella syndrome in a very low birthweight preterm infant. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2011;96:F296–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nichols RA, Averbeck KT, Poulsen AG, Al Bassam MM, Cabral F, Aaby P, Breuer J. Household size is critical to varicella-zoster virus transmission in the tropics despite lower viral infectivity. Epidemics. 2011;3:12–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Opstelten W, Mcelhaney J, Weinberger B, Oaklander AL, Johnson RW. The impact of varicella zoster virus: chronic pain. J Clin Virol. 2010;48(Suppl 1):S8–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ota K, Kim V, Lavi S, Ford-Jones EL, Tipples G, Scolnik D, Tellier R. Vaccine-strain varicella zoster virus causing recurrent herpes zoster in an immunocompetent 2-year-old. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27:847–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oxman MN, Levin MJ, Johnson GR, Schmader KE, Straus SE, Gelb LD, Arbeit RD, Simberkoff MS, Gershon AA, Davis LE, Weinberg A, Boardman KD, Williams HM, Zhang JH, Peduzzi PN, Beisel CE, Morrison VA, Guatelli JC, Brooks PA, Kauffman CA, Pachucki CT, Neuzil KM, Betts RF, Wright PF, Griffin MR, Brunell P, Soto NE, Marques AR, Keay SK, Goodman RP, Cotton DJ, Gnann JW Jr, Loutit J, Holodniy M, Keitel WA, Crawford GE, Yeh SS, Lobo Z, Toney JF, Greenberg RN, Keller PM, Harbecke R, Hayward AR, Irwin MR, Kyriakides TC, Chan CY, Chan IS, Wang WW, Annunziato PW, Silber JL, Shingles Prevention Study G. A vaccine to prevent herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia in older adults. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:2271–84.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pahud BA, Glaser CA, Dekker CL, Arvin AM, Schmid DS. Varicella zoster disease of the central nervous system: epidemiological, clinical, and laboratory features 10 years after the introduction of the varicella vaccine. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:316–23.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Partridge DG, Mckendrick MW. The treatment of varicella-zoster virus infection and its complications. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2009;10:797–812.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patel MS, Gebremariam A, Davis MM. Herpes zoster-related hospitalizations and expenditures before and after introduction of the varicella vaccine in the United States. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2008;29:1157–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patterson BJ, Rausch DA, Irwin DE, Liang M, Yan S, Yawn BP. Analysis of vascular event risk after herpes zoster from 2007 to 2014 US insurance claims data. Mayo Clin Proc. 2019;94:763–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pawaskar M, Méroc E, Samant S, Flem E, Bencina G, Riera-Montes M, Heininger U. Economic burden of varicella in Europe in the absence of universal varicella vaccination. BMC Public Health. 2021;21:2312.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pergam SA, Limaye AP. Varicella zoster virus in solid organ transplantation: guidelines from the American Society of Transplantation Infectious Diseases Community of Practice. Clin Transpl. 2019;33:e13622.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pergam SA, Forsberg CW, Boeckh MJ, Maynard C, Limaye AP, Wald A, Smith NL, Young BA. Herpes zoster incidence in a multicenter cohort of solid organ transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis. 2011;13:15–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Persson A, Bergstrom T, Lindh M, Namvar L, Studahl M. Varicella-zoster virus CNS disease – viral load, clinical manifestations and sequels. J Clin Virol. 2009;46:249–53.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pham MA, Bednarczyk RA, Becker ER, Orenstein WA, Omer SB. Trends in U.S. community hospitalizations due to herpes zoster: 2001–2015. Vaccine. 2019;37:882–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Philip A, Thakur R. Post herpetic neuralgia. J Palliat Med. 2011;14:765–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prelog M, Zimmerhackl LB. Varicella vaccination in pediatric kidney and liver transplantation. Pediatr Transplant. 2010;14:41–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pupco A, Bozzo P, Koren G. Herpes zoster during pregnancy. Can Fam Physician. 2011;57:1133.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Qian J, Heywood AE, Karki S, Banks E, Macartney K, Chantrill L, Liu B. Risk of herpes zoster prior to and following cancer diagnosis and treatment: a population-based prospective cohort study. J Infect Dis. 2019;220:3–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quinlivan M, Breuer J, Schmid DS. Molecular studies of the Oka varicella vaccine. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2011a;10:1321–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quinlivan ML, Ayres KL, Kelly PJ, Parker SP, Scott FT, Johnson RW, Maple C, Breuer J. Persistence of varicella-zoster virus viraemia in patients with herpes zoster. J Clin Virol. 2011b;50:130–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Quinlivan M, Sengupta N, Papaevangelou V, Sauerbrei A, Grillner L, Rousseva R, Hague R, Lutsar I, Jogi P, Leca A, Grytchol R, Alain S, Breuer J. Use of oral fluid to examine the molecular epidemiology of varicella zoster virus in the United Kingdom and continental Europe. J Infect Dis. 2013;207:588–93.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reichelt M, Zerboni L, Arvin AM. Mechanisms of varicella-zoster virus neuropathogenesis in human dorsal root ganglia. J Virol. 2008;82:3971–83.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds MA, Chaves SS, Harpaz R, Lopez AS, Seward JF. The impact of the varicella vaccination program on herpes zoster epidemiology in the United States: a review. J Infect Dis. 2008a;197(Suppl 2):S224–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds MA, Watson BM, Plott-Adams KK, Jumaan AO, Galil K, Maupin TJ, Zhang JX, Seward JF. Epidemiology of varicella hospitalizations in the United States, 1995–2005. J Infect Dis. 2008b;197(Suppl 2):S120–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds MA, Kruszon-Moran D, Jumaan A, Schmid DS, Mcquillan GM. Varicella seroprevalence in the U.S.: data from the national health and nutrition examination survey, 1999–2004. Public Health Rep. 2010;125:860–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rimland D, Moanna A. Increasing incidence of herpes zoster among veterans. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1000–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-Fanjul X, Noguera A, Vicente A, Gonzalez-Ensenat MA, Jimenez R, Fortuny C. Herpes zoster in healthy infants and toddlers after perinatal exposure to varicella-zoster virus: a case series and review of the literature. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010;29:574–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sahoo F, Hill JA, Xie H, Leisenring W, Yi J, Goyal S, Kimball LE, Lee I, Seo S, Davis C, Pergam SA, Flowers ME, Liaw KL, Holmberg L, Boeckh M. Herpes zoster in autologous hematopoietic cell transplant recipients in the era of acyclovir or valacyclovir prophylaxis and novel treatment and maintenance therapies. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2017;23:505–11.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salvetti A, Ferrari V, Garofalo R, Gazzaniga P, Guerroni A, Metrucci A, Sessa A, Severi ML, Nati G, Ruggeri M, Rossi A, Cappellari L, Gopala K, Tosatto R, Simone B. Incidence of herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia in Italian adults aged ≥50 years: a prospective study. Prev Med Rep. 2019;14:100882.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sampathkumar P, Drage LA, Martin DP. Herpes zoster (shingles) and postherpetic neuralgia. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84:274–80.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez MA, Bello-Munoz JC, Cebrecos I, Sanz TH, Martinez JS, Moratonas EC, Roura LC. The prevalence of congenital varicella syndrome after a maternal infection, but before 20 weeks of pregnancy: a prospective cohort study. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2011;24:341–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Satyaprakash AK, Tremaine AM, Stelter AA, Creed R, Ravanfar P, Mendoza N, Mehta SK, Rady PL, Pierson DL, Tyring SK. Viremia in acute herpes zoster. J Infect Dis. 2009;200:26–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sauboin C, Holl K, Bonanni P, Gershon AA, Benninghoff B, Carryn S, Burgess MA, Wutzler P. The impact of childhood varicella vaccination on the incidence of herpes zoster in the general population: modelling the effect of exogenous and endogenous varicella-zoster virus immunity boosting. BMC Infect Dis. 2019;19:126.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sauerbrei A, Taut J, Zell R, Wutzler P. Resistance testing of clinical varicella-zoster virus strains. Antivir Res. 2011;90:242–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schafer VS, Kermani TA, Crowson CS, Hunder GG, Gabriel SE, Ytterberg SR, Matteson EL, Warrington KJ. Incidence of herpes zoster in patients with giant cell arteritis: a population-based cohort study. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2010;49:2104–8.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schink T, Behr S, Thöne K, Bricout H, Garbe E. Risk of stroke after herpes zoster – evidence from a German self-controlled case-series Study. PLoS One. 2016;11:e0166554.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schmader K, Gnann JW Jr, Watson CP. The epidemiological, clinical, and pathological rationale for the herpes zoster vaccine. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S207–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmid DS. Varicella-zoster virus vaccine: molecular genetics. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2010;342:323–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmid DS, Jumaan AO. Impact of varicella vaccine on varicella-zoster virus dynamics. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;23:202–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt SA, Mor A, Schønheyder HC, Sørensen HT, Dekkers OM, Cronin-Fenton D. Herpes zoster as a marker of occult cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2017a;74:215–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmidt SA, Vestergaard M, Pedersen HS, Schønheyder HC, Thomas SL, Smeeth L, Mansfield KE, Sørensen HT, Forbes HJ, Langan SM. Partner bereavement and risk of herpes zoster: results from two population-based case-control studies in Denmark and the United Kingdom. Clin Infect Dis. 2017b;64:572–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schoenberger, S. D., Kim, S. J., Thorne, J. E., Mruthyunjaya, P., Yeh, S., Bakri, S. J. & Ehlers, J. P. 2017. Diagnosis and treatment of acute retinal necrosis: a report by the American academy of ophthalmology. Ophthalmology, 124, 382–392.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schremser V, Antoniewicz L, Tschachler E, Geusau A. Polymerase chain reaction for the diagnosis of herpesvirus infections in dermatology: analysis of clinical data. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2020;132:35–41.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schub D, Janssen E, Leyking S, Sester U, Assmann G, Hennes P, Smola S, Vogt T, Rohrer T, Sester M, Schmidt T. Altered phenotype and functionality of varicella zoster virus-specific cellular immunity in individuals with active infection. J Infect Dis. 2015;211:600–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz TF, Aggarwal N, Moeckesch B, Schenkenberger I, Claeys C, Douha M, Godeaux O, Grupping K, Heineman TC, Fauqued ML, Oostvogels L, Van Den Steen P, Lal H. Immunogenicity and safety of an adjuvanted herpes zoster subunit vaccine coadministered with seasonal influenza vaccine in adults aged 50 years or older. J Infect Dis. 2017;216:1352–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Semionov V, Shvartzman P. Post herpetic itching – a treatment dilemma. Clin J Pain. 2008;24:366–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seward JF, Marin M, Vazquez M. Varicella vaccine effectiveness in the US vaccination program: a review. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S82–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shah SS, Wood SM, Luan X, Ratner AJ. Decline in varicella-related ambulatory visits and hospitalizations in the United States since routine immunization against varicella. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010;29:199–204.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro ED, Vazquez M, Esposito D, Holabird N, Steinberg SP, Dziura J, Larussa PS, Gershon AA. Effectiveness of 2 doses of varicella vaccine in children. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:312–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw J, Gershon AA. Varicella virus vaccination in the United States. Viral Immunol. 2018;31:96–103.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shinjoh M, Takahashi T. Varicella zoster exposure on paediatric wards between 2000 and 2007: safe and effective post-exposure prophylaxis with oral aciclovir. J Hosp Infect. 2009;72:163–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shiraki K, Toyama N, Daikoku T, Yajima M. Herpes zoster and recurrent herpes zoster. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2017;4:ofx007.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shrim A, Koren G, Yudin MH, Farine D, Maternal Fetal Medicine C. Management of varicella infection (chickenpox) in pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2012;34:287–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Silver B, Nagel MA, Mahalingam R, Cohrs R, Schmid DS, Gilden D. Varicella zoster virus vasculopathy: a treatable form of rapidly progressive multi-infarct dementia after 2 years’ duration. J Neurol Sci. 2012;323:245–7.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Slifkin M, Doron S, Snydman DR. Viral prophylaxis in organ transplant patients. Drugs. 2004;64:2763–92.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Son M, Shapiro ED, Larussa P, Neu N, Michalik DE, Meglin M, Jurgrau A, Bitar W, Vasquez M, Flynn P, Gershon AA. Effectiveness of varicella vaccine in children infected with HIV. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:1806–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sosa LE, Hadler JL. Epidemiology of varicella in Connecticut, 2001–2005. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S90–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stadtmauer EA, Sullivan KM, Marty FM, Dadwal SS, Papanicolaou GA, Shea TC, Mossad SB, Andreadis C, Young JA, Buadi FK, El Idrissi M, Heineman TC, Berkowitz EM. A phase 1/2 study of an adjuvanted varicella-zoster virus subunit vaccine in autologous hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. Blood. 2014;124:2921–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stein AN, Britt H, Harrison C, Conway EL, Cunningham A, Macintyre CR. Herpes zoster burden of illness and health care resource utilisation in the Australian population aged 50 years and older. Vaccine. 2009;27:520–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strezova A, Lal H, Enweonye I, Campora L, Beukelaers P, Segall N, Heineman TC, Schuind AE, Oostvogels L. The adjuvanted recombinant zoster vaccine co-administered with a tetanus, diphtheria and pertussis vaccine in adults aged ≥50 years: a randomized trial. Vaccine. 2019;37:5877–85.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Su SH, Martel-Laferrière V, Labbé AC, Snydman DR, Kent D, Laverdière M, Béliveau C, Logvinenko T, Cohen S, Lachance S, Kiss T, Roy J. High incidence of herpes zoster in nonmyeloablative hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant. 2011;17:1012–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sun Y, Kim E, Kong CL, Arnold BF, Porco TC, Acharya NR. Effectiveness of the recombinant zoster vaccine in adults aged 50 and older in the United States: a claims-based cohort Study. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:949–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sundström K, Weibull CE, Söderberg-Löfdal K, Bergström T, Sparén P, Arnheim-Dahlström L. Incidence of herpes zoster and associated events including stroke – a population-based cohort study. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:488.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Swamy GK, Dotters-Katz SK. Safety and varicella outcomes after varicella zoster immune globulin administration in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2019;221:655–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Szucs TD, Pfeil AM. A systematic review of the cost effectiveness of herpes zoster vaccination. PharmacoEconomics. 2013;31:125–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi M, Asano Y, Kamiya H, Baba K, Ozaki T, Otsuka T, Yamanishi K. Development of varicella vaccine. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S41–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tan B, Bettinger J, Mcconnell A, Scheifele D, Halperin S, Vaudry W, Law B, Members of the Canadian Immunization Monitoring Program, A. The effect of funded varicella immunization programs on varicella-related hospitalizations in IMPACT centers, Canada, 2000–2008. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012;31:956–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tang H, Moriishi E, Okamoto S, Okuno Y, Iso H, Asada H, Yamanishi K, Mori Y, Shozu Herpes Zoster Study, G. A community-based survey of varicella-zoster virus-specific immune responses in the elderly. J Clin Virol. 2012;55:46–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tannous R, Grose C. Calculation of the anterograde velocity of varicella-zoster virions in a human sciatic nerve during shingles. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:324–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tanuseputro P, Zagorski B, Chan KJ, Kwong JC. Population-based incidence of herpes zoster after introduction of a publicly funded varicella vaccination program. Vaccine. 2011;29:8580–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taweesith W, Puthanakit T, Kowitdamrong E, Bunupuradah T, Wongngam W, Phasomsap C, Apornpong T, Bouko C, Pancharoen C. The immunogenicity and safety of live attenuated varicella-zoster virus vaccine in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2011;30:320–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas SL, Minassian C, Ganesan V, Langan SM, Smeeth L. Chickenpox and risk of stroke: a self-controlled case series analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58:61–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson RR, Kong CL, Porco TC, Kim E, Ebert CD, Acharya NR. Herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia: changing incidence rates from 1994 to 2018 in the United States. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;73:e3210–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomson KJ, Hart DP, Banerjee L, Ward KN, Peggs KS, Mackinnon S. The effect of low-dose aciclovir on reactivation of varicella zoster virus after allogeneic haemopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2005;35:1065–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tseng HF, Sy LS. Use of real-world evidence to evaluate the effectiveness of herpes zoster vaccine. J Infect Dis. 2018;218:S63–s67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tseng HF, Smith N, Marcy SM, Sy LS, Jacobsen SJ. Incidence of herpes zoster among children vaccinated with varicella vaccine in a prepaid health care plan in the United States, 2002–2008. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009;28:1069–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tseng HF, Smith N, Marcy SM, Sy LS, Chao CR, Jacobsen SJ. Risk factors of herpes zoster among children immunized with varicella vaccine: results from a nested case-control study. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2010;29:205–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tseng HF, Chi M, Smith N, Marcy SM, Sy LS, Jacobsen SJ. Herpes zoster vaccine and the incidence of recurrent herpes zoster in an immunocompetent elderly population. J Infect Dis. 2012;206:190–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tseng HF, Chi M, Hung P, Harpaz R, Schmid DS, Larussa P, Sy LS, Luo Y, Holmquist K, Takhar H, Jacobsen SJ. Family history of zoster and risk of developing herpes zoster. Int J Infect Dis. 2018;66:99–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tunbridge AJ, Breuer J, Jeffery KJ, British Infection S. Chickenpox in adults – clinical management. J Infect. 2008;57:95–102.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tyring SK, Stek JE, Smith JG, Xu J, Pagnoni M, Chan IS, Silber JL, Parrino J, Levin MJ. Varicella-zoster virus-specific enzyme-linked immunospot assay responses and zoster-associated pain in herpes zoster subjects. Clin Vaccine Immunol. 2012;19:1411–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Van Besouw NM, Verjans GM, Zuijderwijk JM, Litjens NH, Osterhaus AD, Weimar W. Systemic varicella zoster virus reactive effector memory T-cells impaired in the elderly and in kidney transplant recipients. J Med Virol. 2012;84:2018–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Oorschot D, vroling H, Bunge E, Diaz-Decaro J, Curran D, Yawn B. A systematic literature review of herpes zoster incidence worldwide. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2021;17:1714–32.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Van Rijckevorsel GG, Damen M, Sonder GJ, Van Der Loeff MF, Van Den Hoek A. Seroprevalence of varicella-zoster virus and predictors for seronegativity in the Amsterdam adult population. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:140.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Van Wijck AJ, Wallace M, Mekhail N, Van Kleef M. Evidence-based interventional pain medicine according to clinical diagnoses. 17. Herpes zoster and post-herpetic neuralgia. Pain Pract. 2011;11:88–97.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Varela FH, Pinto LA, Scotta MC. Global impact of varicella vaccination programs. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2019;15:645–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vesikari T, Becker T, Gajdos V, Fiquet A, Thomas S, Richard P, Baudin M. Immunogenicity and safety of a two-dose regimen of a combined measles, mumps, rubella and varicella live vaccine (ProQuad((R))) in infants from 9 months of age. Vaccine. 2012;30:3082–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vijay A, Dalela G. Herpes zoster duplex bilateralis in immuno-competent patients: report of two cases. J Clin Diagn Res. 2015;9:Wr01–3.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Viner K, Perella D, Lopez A, Bialek S, Newbern C, Pierre R, Spells N, Watson B. Transmission of varicella zoster virus from individuals with herpes zoster or varicella in school and day care settings. J Infect Dis. 2012;205:1336–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vink P, Delgado Mingorance I, Maximiano Alonso C, Rubio-Viqueira B, Jung KH, Rodriguez Moreno JF, Grande E, Marrupe Gonzalez D, Lowndes S, Puente J, Kristeleit H, Farrugia D, Mcneil SA, Campora L, Di Paolo E, El Idrissi M, Godeaux O, López-Fauqued M, Salaun B, Heineman TC, Oostvogels L. Immunogenicity and safety of the adjuvanted recombinant zoster vaccine in patients with solid tumors, vaccinated before or during chemotherapy: a randomized trial. Cancer. 2019;125:1301–12.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • VINK P, Ramon Torrell JM, Sanchez Fructuoso A, Kim SJ, Kim SI, Zaltzman J, Ortiz F, Campistol Plana JM, Fernandez Rodriguez AM, Rebollo Rodrigo H, Campins Marti M, Perez R, González Roncero FM, Kumar D, Chiang YJ, Doucette K, Pipeleers L, Agüera Morales ML, Rodriguez-Ferrero ML, Secchi A, Mcneil SA, Campora L, Di Paolo E, El Idrissi M, López-Fauqued M, Salaun B, Heineman TC, Oostvogels L. Immunogenicity and safety of the adjuvanted recombinant zoster vaccine in chronically immunosuppressed adults following renal transplant: a phase 3, randomized clinical trial. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;70:181–90.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warren-Gash C. Herpes zoster: epidemiological links with stroke and myocardial infarction. J Infect Dis. 2018;218:S102–s106.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Watson B. Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses in children and adults after 1 and 2 doses of varicella vaccine. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S143–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinberg A, Levin MJ. VZV T cell-mediated immunity. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2010;342:341–57.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinberg A, Horslen SP, Kaufman SS, Jesser R, Devoll-Zabrocki A, Fleckten BL, Kochanowicz S, Seipel KR, Levin MJ. Safety and immunogenicity of varicella-zoster virus vaccine in pediatric liver and intestine transplant recipients. Am J Transplant. 2006;6:565–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinberg A, Lazar AA, Zerbe GO, Hayward AR, Chan IS, Vessey R, Silber JL, Macgregor RR, Chan K, Gershon AA, Levin MJ. Influence of age and nature of primary infection on varicella-zoster virus-specific cell-mediated immune responses. J Infect Dis. 2010;201:1024–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinberg A, Kroehl ME, Johnson MJ, Hammes A, Reinhold D, Lang N, Levin MJ. Comparative immune responses to licensed herpes zoster vaccines. J Infect Dis. 2018;218:S81–s87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinmann S, Chun C, Mullooly JP, Riedlinger K, Houston H, Loparev VN, Schmid DS, Seward JF. Laboratory diagnosis and characteristics of breakthrough varicella in children. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S132–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinmann S, Naleway AL, Koppolu P, Baxter R, Belongia EA, Hambidge SJ, Irving SA, Jackson ML, Klein NP, Lewin B, Liles E, Marin M, Smith N, Weintraub E, Chun C. Incidence of herpes zoster among children: 2003–2014. Pediatrics. 2019;144

    Google Scholar 

  • Weitzman D, Shavit O, Stein M, Cohen R, Chodick G, Shalev V. A population based study of the epidemiology of herpes zoster and its complications. J Infect. 2013;67:463–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitley RJ. A 70-year-old woman with shingles: review of herpes zoster. JAMA. 2009;302:73–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson E, Goss MA, Marin M, Shields KE, Seward JF, Rasmussen SA, Sharrar RG. Varicella vaccine exposure during pregnancy: data from 10 years of the pregnancy registry. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S178–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson DA, Yen-Lieberman B, Schindler S, Asamoto K, Schold JD, Procop GW. Should varicella-zoster virus culture be eliminated? A comparison of direct immunofluorescence antigen detection, culture, and PCR, with a historical review. J Clin Microbiol. 2012;50:4120–2.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wolfson LJ, Daniels VJ, Altland A, Black W, Huang W, Ou W. The impact of varicella vaccination on the incidence of varicella and herpes zoster in the United States: updated evidence from observational databases, 1991–2016. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;70:995–1002.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wood SM, Shah SS, Steenhoff AP, Rutstein RM. Primary varicella and herpes zoster among HIV-infected children from 1989 to 2006. Pediatrics. 2008;121:e150–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wutzler P, Bonanni P, Burgess M, Gershon A, Sáfadi MA, Casabona G. Varicella vaccination – the global experience. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2017;16:833–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Xue E, Xie H, Leisenring WM, Kimball LE, Goyal S, Chung L, Blazevic R, Maltez B, Edwards A, Dahlberg AE, Salit RB, Delaney C, Pergam SA, Boeckh M, Milano F, Hill JA. High incidence of herpes zoster after cord blood hematopoietic cell transplant despite longer duration of antiviral prophylaxis. Clin Infect Dis. 2021;72:1350–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamanishi K. Molecular analysis of the Oka vaccine strain of varicella-zoster virus. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S45–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yanni EA, Ferreira G, Guennec M, El Hahi Y, El Ghachi A, Haguinet F, Espie E, Bianco V. Burden of herpes zoster in 16 selected immunocompromised populations in England: a cohort study in the clinical practice research datalink 2000–2012. BMJ Open. 2018;8:e020528.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yawn BP, Saddier P, Wollan PC, St Sauver JL, Kurland MJ, Sy LS. A population-based study of the incidence and complication rates of herpes zoster before zoster vaccine introduction. Mayo Clin Proc. 2007;82:1341–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yawn BP, Itzler RF, Wollan PC, Pellissier JM, Sy LS, Saddier P. Health care utilization and cost burden of herpes zoster in a community population. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84:787–94.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yawn BP, Wollan PC, St Sauver JL, Butterfield LC. Herpes zoster eye complications: rates and trends. Mayo Clin Proc. 2013;88:562–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yawn BP, Wollan PC, Nagel MA, Gilden D. Risk of stroke and myocardial infarction after herpes zoster in older adults in a US community population. Mayo Clin Proc. 2016;91:33–44.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yenikomshian MA, Guignard AP, Haguinet F, Lacasce AS, Skarin AT, Trahey A, Karner P, Duh MS. The epidemiology of herpes zoster and its complications in Medicare cancer patients. BMC Infect Dis. 2015;15:106.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yih WK, Brooks DR, Lett SM, Jumaan AO, Zhang Z, Clements KM, Seward JF. The incidence of varicella and herpes zoster in Massachusetts as measured by the behavioral risk factor surveillance system (BRFSS) during a period of increasing varicella vaccine coverage, 1998–2003. BMC Public Health. 2005;5:68.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yin PD, Kurup SK, Fischer SH, Rhee HH, Byrnes GA, Levy-Clarke GA, Buggage RR, Nussenblatt RB, Mican JM, Wright ME. Progressive outer retinal necrosis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: successful management with intravitreal injections and monitoring with quantitative PCR. J Clin Virol. 2007;38:254–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang D, Weiss T, Feng Y, Finelli L. Duration of antiviral prophylaxis and risk of herpes zoster among patients receiving autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplants: a retrospective, observational study. Adv Ther. 2017;34:1610–21.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou F, Ortega-Sanchez IR, Guris D, Shefer A, Lieu T, Seward JF. An economic analysis of the universal varicella vaccination program in the United States. J Infect Dis. 2008;197(Suppl 2):S156–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman RA, Limaye AP. Varicella zoster virus (VZV) and herpes simplex virus (HSV) in solid organ transplant patients. Am J Transplant. 2013;13(Suppl 3):55–66. quiz 66

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Suggested Reading

  • Cohen JI. Clinical practice: Herpes zoster. N Engl J Med. 2013;369:255–63. Review of the diagnosis and clinical management of herpes zoster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harbecke R, Cohen JI, Oxman MN. Herpes zoster vaccines. J Infect Dis. 2021;224:S429–s442. Review of the development and efficacy evaluations of the live-attenuated and subunit herpes zoster vaccines.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harpaz R. Do varicella vaccination programs change the epidemiology of herpes zoster? A comprehensive review, with focus on the United States. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2019;18:793–811. Exploration of the complex interactions of varicella and herpes zoster vaccines with the epidemiologic trends of chickenpox and shingles in the United States.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaw J, Gershon AA. Varicella virus vaccination in the United States. Viral Immunol. 2018;31:96–103. Overview of the development and implementation of the highly successful variacella vaccine program in the United States.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Infectious Diseases, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA

    John W. Gnann Jr

Authors
  1. John W. Gnann Jr
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to John W. Gnann Jr .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Public Health, Yale University, Washington, DC, USA

    Richard A. Kaslow

  2. Vagelos College of Physicians & Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

    Lawrence R. Stanberry

  3. Cters for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Emerging and Zoonoti, Fort Collins, CO, USA

    Ann M. Powers

Section Editor information

  1. School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA

    Richard A. Kaslow MD, MPH

  2. School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA

    Richard A. Kaslow MD, MPH

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2024 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Gnann, J.W. (2024). Human Herpesviruses: Varicella and Herpes Zoster. In: Kaslow, R.A., Stanberry, L.R., Powers, A.M. (eds) Viral Infections of Humans. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9544-8_42-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9544-8_42-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-9544-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-9544-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference MedicineReference Module Medicine

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation