Abstract
As background for appreciating the development of fetal and newborn physiology, undoubtedly some of the earliest studies on the embryo and fetus that can be classified as scientific were done by William Harvey (Fig. 3.1a). He recorded in the early 1630s, shortly following publication of his monumental Exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis… (Harvey 1628), that, with the privilege and blessing of King James I (1566–1625; King from 1603 to death) and King Charles I (Charles Stuart; 1600–1649; King from 1625 to his death), for both of whom Harvey served as personal physician, investigations on various aspects of generation in deer and other animals that resided at the King’s estate. In addition to providing animals from the Royal preserves, Harvey wrote that he had daily opportunity to dissect and study the reproductive and genital organs. Of this patronage, he also credits the King with taking a great interest in his work, for instance, “… my Royal master (whose Physitian I was, and who was himself much delighted in this kind of curiosity, being many times pleased to be an eye-witness, and to assert my new inventions)” (Harvey 1653, p. 397). A Royalist, in anticipation of the Civil War, Harvey later accompanied King Charles to Scotland, and following the Battle of Edgehill (23 October 1642), the first major action of the Civil War, the Royal party settled and set up Court in Oxford. Within several months, Harvey was appointed warden of Merton College. Here, Harvey took advantage of the opportunity to resume studies of the development of hen’s egg that he had commenced earlier. He conducted these studies in the rooms of George Bathurst, an Anglican divine of Trinity College, who had a hen to hatch eggs in his chamber which they opened day after day, “That we may the better discover what the… incubation hath produced” (1653, p. 80). Relatively uninterrupted by the political upheavals that surrounded him, Harvey pursued his embryological studies. As an aside, it should be noted that during the Civil War, the period of parliamentarian rule during the Interregnum and continuing through the Restoration, as a Royalist stronghold, Oxford was fiercely loyal to the Crown.
The business and design of the Royal Society is- to improve the knowledge of natural things, and all useful Arts, Manufactures, Mechanick practices, Engynes and Inventions by Experiments-(not meddling with Divinity, Metaphysics, Moralls, Politicks, Grammar, Rhetorick or Logick)…. All to advance the glory of God, the honour of the King…the benefit of his Kingdom, and the general good of mankind.
(Hooke 1663, In C R Weld 1848 p.146)
References
Acland, Sir H.W. Oxford and modern medicine. A letter to Dr. James Andrew…. Oxford, Henry Frowde, 1890.
Aranzi, G.C. De humano foetu libellus…. Bononiae, Ex officina Joannis Rubrii, 1564.
Bacon, F. The tvvoo bookes of Francis Bacon: of the proficience and aduancement of learning, diuine and humane. To the King. London, Henrie Tomes, 1605.
Bacon, F. Novum organum Scientiarum. Londini, 1620.
Bacon, F. Francisci Baronis de Verulamio, Vice-Comitis Sancti Albani, De dignitate & augmentis scientiarum libri IX. Londini, In officina Ioannis Hauiland, 1623.
Bacon, F. The great instauration. Edited and translated by B. Montague. Excerpts from The Works, 3 vols. Philadelphia, Parry & MacMillan, 1854.
Barclay, A.E., K.J. Franklin & M.M.L. Prichard. The foetal circulation and cardiovascular system, and the changes they undergo at birth. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Ltd., 1944.
Barron, D.H. A history of fetal respiration: From Harvey’s Question (1651) to Zweifel’s Answer (1876). In: Fetal and Newborn Cardiovascular Physiology. Vol 1. L.D. Longo & D.D. Reneau (Eds). New York, Garland STPM Press, 1978, pp. 1-32.
Bibby, C. The essence of T.H. Huxley. … And a foreword by Sir Julian Huxley. London, Macmillan, 1967.
Booth, C.C. Clinical research. In: Historical perspectives on the role of the MRC. Essays in the history of the Medical Research Council of the United Kingdom and its predecessor, the Medical Research Committee, 1913–1953. J. Austoker & L. Bryder (Eds). Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1989, pp. 205-241.
Boyle, R. Certain physiological essays; written at distant times, and on several occasions. London, Henry Herringman, 1661a.
Boyle, R. The skeptical chymist, or, Chymico-physical doubts & paradoxes, touching the spagyrist’s principles commonly call’d hypostatical …. London, Printed by J. Cadwell for J. Crooke, 1661b.
Boyle, R. A defence of the doctrine touching the spring and weight of the air. London, T. Robinson, 1662.
Boyle, R. A continuation of new experiments physico-mechanical, touching the spring and weight of the air. London, M. Flesher for R. Davis, 1682.
Bronfenbrenner, M.O. The role of scientific societies in the seventeenth century. A.E. Cohn (Ed). Chicago, IL., University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Bryson, B. & J. Turney (Eds). Seeing further. The story of science and the Royal Society. London, Harper Press, 2010.
Burdon-Sanderson, J.S. The school of medical science in Oxford. Oxford, Horace Hart, printer to the University, 1892, pp. 5-35.
Buzzard, Sir E.F. “And the future”. Br Med J 2:163-166, 1936.
Buzzard, Sir E.F. Reconstruction of the practice of medicine. Lancet 1:343-347, 1942.
Bylebyl, J.J. William Harvey. In: Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol VI. C.C. Gillispie (Ed). New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1972, pp. 150-162.
Bynum, W.F. A short history of the Physiological Society 1926-1976. J Physiol (Lond.) 263:23-72, 1976.
Cawadias, A.P. Thomas Linacre and the first scholar-physicians of Oxford. Br Med J 2:550-552, 1936.
Chaplin, A. The history of medical education in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, 1500–1850. Proc R Soc Med 12(Suppl):83-107, 1919.
Chaplin, A. The Harveian Oration on Medicine in the Century before Harvey. Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians of London, on October 18 th , 1922. London, John Bale, Sons & Danielsson, Ltd., 1922.
Charleton, W. Onomasticon zoicon, plerorumque animalium differentias et nomina propria pluribus linguis exponens. Cui accedunt mantissa anatomica, et quaedam de variis fossilium generibus. Londoni, apud J. Allestry, 1668.
Collier, W. President’s Address. The growth and development of the Oxford Medical School. Br Med J 2:221-226, 1904.
Cushing, H. The life of Sir William Osler. 2 Vols. Oxford, The Clarendon Press, 1925.
Dolnick, E. The clockwork universe: Isaac Newton, the Royal Society, and the birth of the modern world. New York, HarperCollins, 2011.
Evelyn, J. Sylva, or, a discourse of forest-trees, and the propagation of timber in His Majesties dominions. London, Jo. Martyn and Ja. Allestry, 1664.
Flexner, A. Medical education in the United States and Canada. A report to the Carnegie foundation for the advancement of teaching. With an introduction by Henry S. Pritchett. New York, Carnegie Foundation, 1910.
Flexner, A. Medical education in Europe. A report to the Carnegie foundation for the advancement of teaching. With an introduction by Henry S. Pritchett. New York, Carnegie Foundation, 1912.
Frank, R.G. Jr. Harvey and the Oxford physiologists: a study of scientific ideas and social interaction. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1980.
Franklin, K.J. A short sketch on the history of the Oxford Medical School. Ann Sci 1:431-446, 1936.
Golding, S. Obituary. G.M. Ardran, MD, FRCP, FRCR. Br Med J 309:601-602, 1994.
Gribbin, J. The fellowship. The story of a revolution. London, Allen Lane an imprint of Penguin Books, 2005.
Gribbin, J. The fellowship. Gilbert, Bacon, Harvey, Wren, Newton, and the story of a scientific revolution. Woodstock, NY, Overlook Press, 2007.
Harvey, W. Exercitatio anatomica de mortu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus. Francofurti, sumpt Guilielmi Fitzeri, 1628.
Harvey, W. Exercitationes de generatione animalium…. Quibus accedunt quaedam de partu: de membranis ac humoribus uteri: & de conceptione…. Londoni, Octavian Pulleyn, 1651.
Harvey, W. Anatomical exercitations, concerning the generation of living creatures: To which are added particular discourses of births, and of conception, &c. London, printed by James Young…, 1653.
Hesse, M. Francis Bacon. In: Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. I. C.C. Gillispie (Ed). New York, Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1970, pp. 372-377.
Highmore, N. The history of generation. Examining the several opinions of divers authors. London, printed by R.N. for John Martin…, 1651a.
Highmore, N. Corporis humani disquisition anatomica. Hagai-Comitis, S. Brown, 1651b.
Hinshelwood, Sir C. Address of the President …, at the Formal Opening Ceremony of the Tercentenary Celebrations at the Royal Albert Hall, 19 July 1960. Proc R Soc Lond A 257:421-430, 1960.
Hooke, R. Micrographia, or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses; with observations and inquiries thereupon. London, J. Martyn & J. Allestry, 1665.
Hooke, R. An account of an experiment of preserving animals alive by blowing through their lungs with bellows. Phil Trans 2:539-540, 1667.
Hutchison, R. Harvey: the man, his method, and his message for us to-day. Br Med J 2:733-739, 1931.
Keynes, Sir G. A Bibliography of the Writings of Dr. William Harvey. Cambridge, University Press, 1953.
Keynes, Sir G. The Life of William Harvey. Oxford, At the Clarendon Press, 1966.
Liggins, G.C. Geoffrey Sharman Dawes, C.B.E. 21 January 1918-6 May 1996, Elected F.R.S. 1971. Biogr Mem Fellows R Soc 44:111-125, 1998.
Linné, C. Von. Systema naturae. Lugduni Batavorum, apud Theodorum Haak, 1735.
Little, D.M. Jr. Classical File. Surv Anesthesiol 19:308-309, 1975.
Lower, R. The method observed in transfusing the blood out of one live animal into another. Phil Trans 1:353-358, 1666.
Lower, R. Tractatus de corde. Londini, J. Allestry, 1669.
Macmichael, W. The gold-headed cane. London, J. Murray, 1827.
Malpighi, M. De pulmonibus observations anatomicae. Bononiae, B. Ferronius, 1661.
Mayow, J. Tractatus quinque medico-physici. Oxonii, E. Theatro Sheldoniano, 1674.
Meyer, A.W. An analysis of the De Generatione Animalium of William Harvey. London, Oxford University Press, 1936.
Minns, F.J. Wealth well-given: the enterprise and benevolence of Lord Nuffield. Stroud, Alan Sutton, 1994.
Needham, W. Disquisitio anatomica de formato foetu. Londini, Typis Gulielmi Godbid… Radulphum Needham, 1667.
O’Connor, W.J. Founders of British physiology. A biographical dictionary, 1820-1885. Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1988.
Petty, W. Several essays in political arithmetic. London, Robert Clavel and Henry Mortlock, 1699.
Poynter, F.N.L. The centenary of the General Medical Council. Br Med J 2:1245-1248, 1958.
Poynter, F.N.L. (Ed). The evolution of medical education in Britain. London, Pitman Medical Publishing Company Ltd, 1966a.
Poynter, F.N.L. Education and the General Medical Council. In: The evolution of medical education in Britain. F.N.L. Poynter (Ed). London, Pitman Medical Publishing Company Ltd, 1966b, pp. 195-205.
Poynter, F.N.L. Medical education in England since 1600. In: The history of medical education. UCLA forum in medical sciences. No. 12. An international symposium held February 5-9, 1968…. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1970, pp. 235-249.
Robb-Smith, A.H.T. Medical education at Oxford and Cambridge prior to 1850. In: The evolution of medical education in Britain. F.N.L. Poynter (Ed). London, Pitman Medical Publishing Company Ltd, 1966, pp. 19-52.
Rolleston, H. The personalities of the Oxford Medical School from 1700 to 1880. Ann Med Hist 8:277-287, 1936.
Royal Commission on University Education in London. Final report of the Commissioners. London, H.M. Stationery Off., 1913.
Sharpey-Schafer, E. History of the Physiological Society 1876–1926. J Physiol (Lond.) 64(3 Suppl):1-181, 1927a.
Sharpey-Schafer, E. History of the Physiological Society during its first fifty years, 1876–1926. London, Cambridge University Press, 1927b.
Singer, C. The discovery of the circulation of the blood. London, G. Bell and Sons Ltd., 1922.
Spedding, J., R. H. Ellis & D. D. Heath (Eds). The works of Francis Bacon. 7 vols. London, Longman, 1857-1859.
Thomson, A.P. The influence of the General Medical Council on education. Br Med J 2:1248-1250, 1958.
von Baer, C.E. De ovi mammalium et hominis genesi. Lipsiae, L. Vossius, 1827.
Weatherall, M.W. Gentlemen, scientists and doctors. Medicine at Cambridge 1800-1940. Cambridge, Boydell Press; Cambridge University Library, 2000.
Webster, C. Medicine. In: The History of the University of Oxford. Vol. VIII, The Twentieth Century. B. Harrison (Ed). Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1994, pp. 317-343
Weld, C.R. A history of the Royal Society with memoirs of the presidents: compiled from authentic documents. 2 vol. London, J.W. Parker, 1848.
Willis, T. Cerebri anatome: cui accessit nervorum descriptio et usus. Londoni, typ J. Mesher imp J. Martyn & J. Allestry, 1664.
Willis, T. Affectionum quae dicuntur hystericae et hypochondriacae pathologie spasmodica vindicate…. Lugduni Batav, Apud Cornel Driehuysen, apud Felicem Lopez, 1671.
Wright, T. Circulation: William Harvey’s revolutionary idea. London, Chatto and Windus, 2012.
Zweifel, P. Die Respiration des Fötus. Arch Gynäkol 9:291-305, 1876.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 The American Physiological Society
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Longo, L.D. (2018). Oxford and the Development of Physiology, with Notes on the Nuffield Institute for Medical Research. In: The Rise of Fetal and Neonatal Physiology . Perspectives in Physiology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7483-2_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-7483-2_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-7482-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-7483-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)