Abstract
During the latter part of the 1920s and in the 1930s, led by Director William Cole, the MDIBL expanded its facilities on the original Mitchell Tract (Halsey, Hegner, and Lewis Laboratories), began a leasehold policy to provide housing for summer Investigators, and sold lots on Spruce Point (part of the McCagg Tract) to senior Investigators to build cottages. During this period, the second generation of MDIBL Investigators (those who had not been at Harpswell) brought more biomedical interests to the MDIBL to complement the historical interests in development and anatomy. The studies of E.K. Marshall, Homer Smith, and James Shannon on renal structure and function provided the intellectual basis for much of modern nephrology. Smith also provided the basic model for fish osmoregulation that is being investigated at the molecular level today. In the late 1930s, Ulric Dahlgren (who had been instrumental in moving the Harpswell Laboratory to Mt. Desert Island nearly 20 years previously) resurrected a marine biology course, which like most functions of the MDIBL was cut short by the outbreak of WWII.
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Notes
- 1.
Actually, it was the Weir Mitchell Station of the MDIBL, because the Dorr Station had its own Director, Raymond L. Taylor, from the College of William and Mary.
- 2.
Except for 1938, when he was on sabbatical and Earl O. Butcher (Hamilton College) was interim Director. Burger remembered Butcher as “and effective researcher [and] a diligent Director. Due to a change in positions, he had to leave the lab. His loss was a real one, both as an investigator and that of a fine family man.” (Burger 1998, p. 35) Butcher was listed as an “Independent Investigator” from 1935 to 1938, working on various aspects of the visual and nervous control of melanophores (pigment cells) in Fundulus (Butcher 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939a, b; Butcher and Adelmann 1937).
- 3.
For a short biography of Cole, go to the Guide to the William Harder Cole Papers, 1919–1967 (www2.scc.rutgers.edu/ead/uarchives/colef.html).
- 4.
Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, p. 52, in MDIBL Archives
- 5.
The Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, Thirty-First Season, 1929, p. 9; in MDIBL Archives. The work was subsequently published in Cole (1929), where the author noted that “The experiments were done during the summer of 1928 at the [MDIBL], where Director H.V. Neal extended many appreciated courtesies.”
- 6.
Annual announcements for the Harpswell Laboratory and MDIBL summer seasons 1921–1931; in MDIBL Archives
- 7.
William L. Doyle came as a student (of S.O. Mast) in 1931, but there is no record of him at the Laboratory again until 1950. So he will be included in what will be termed the “Third Generation,” those who became active at the Laboratory after WWII.
- 8.
Cole continued his studies of the effects of external stimuli on the beating of barnacle cirri (Allison and Cole 1935), the effect of temperature on adaptation of the killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) to white and black backgrounds (Cole and Schaeffer 1937), and the composition of the body fluids of invertebrates, in particular the lobster, for use in physiological experiments (Cole 1939, 1940).
- 9.
As noted in the last chapter, this house, now called Emery Cottage, was across the Bar Harbor Road (Route 3) from the old Emery Farm House (called Bowen after 1947) and had been donated to the Laboratory by J.D. Rockefeller, Jr. in 1929 (see Fig 2.18 in Chap. 2).
- 10.
Most notably, the lecture by Admiral Richard Byrd mentioned in Chap. 2. The talk at the Criterion Theatre in Bar Harbor netted nearly $800, approximately 20 % of the budget at that time (Bull. MDIBL, 1937, p. 11). The function had also received support from a long list of local businesses, including The Bar Harbor Club, Bar Harbor Times, West End Drug, Bar Harbor Dairy, Lynam and Co., Bar Harbor Bank and Trust, First National Bank, Bangor Hydro, Butterfields, Sherman Stationary, etc. (Op. Cit., p. 13). Cole’s efforts also resulted in lengthy articles about the MDIBL in the Bar Harbor Times (August 16, 1935, p. 3), the Bangor Daily News (August 6, 1938, p. 15), and Lewiston Journal (August 13, 1938, pp. A-6-7). Copies in MDIBL Archives.
- 11.
By 1933, the list of “subscribing institutions” included the Carnegie Institution, Harvard, Johns Hopkins, NYU, Princeton, the Rockefeller Foundation, Rutgers, and Tufts (Bull. MDIBL, 1934, pp. 5–6).
- 12.
Ibid. These “Leaseholds” became the mechanism whereby senior investigators could be assured of housing in the same structure each summer, rather than applying for a cottage each year, and often having to move. The Leasehold was purchased for a reasonable price, then sold back to the Laboratory (for original cost plus renovations, corrected by the Consumer Price Index after about 1985) when the investigator retired from research. Some of the Leasehold agreements had “widow clauses,” so that the wife could continue to occupy the cottage for many summers after her husband’s death. In the 1980s at least two investigators did not return to the laboratory because of what they felt were the inequities of the Leasehold system, and some senior Investigators started purchasing homes in other areas of Salisbury Cove (Sand Point Road and Bay View Drive). By 2015, all the original Leasehold cottages had been sold back to the MDIBL and were being used as rental cottages. The idea of leasing land to summer investigators for the erection of cottages (“a much vexed question”) had been “favored in principle” by the Trustees in their Annual Meeting of August 9, 1928 (Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, p. 54; in MDIBL Archives).
- 13.
The cottage was first rented by Earl Butcher, but in 1939 Wendell Burger and his family moved in and lived there in the 1940s and 1950s (Burger 1998, pp. 35–36). The structure was still called Burger and used as a rental cottage, until it was remodeled into a storage facility in 2014.
- 14.
Route 3 now separates the McCagg and Liscomb Tracts. The families of Dwight Minnich (President of MDIBL, 1946–1950) and Charles Wilde (Director, 1967–1970; President, 1978–1979) occupied the Liscomb cottage as a Leasehold (Burger 1998, p. 36). It became a rental cottage in the 1980s, but burned down in November, 2005, and has not been replaced.
- 15.
Where the Lewises had done their research (see Chap. 2, Fig. 2.19). The structure is now called Doyle Cottage (see Chap. 2). Burger says “The Coles leaned over backwards in fairness on the purchase” (Burger 1998, p. 36). The purchase was actually the first Leasehold (Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, p. 198; in MDIBL Archives).
- 16.
After WWII, Roy Forster and his colleagues (e.g., Leon Goldstein; see Chaps. 5 and 6) worked in one of the Lewis Labs, and “here annually he made his famous fish chowder, one made of genuine lungfish, which tastes like frog rather than fish. This lab was the center for coffee, conversation, and humor” (Burger 1998, p. 37).
- 17.
In 1939 (Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, p. 178; in MDIBL Archives).
- 18.
Halsey had worked at the MDIBL during the summers of 1936–1938, publishing two reports on the actions of various drugs (e.g., epinephrine, ergotamine, oxytocin, vasopressin, physostigmine, and acetylcholine) on the flow of a perfusion fluid through the vascular bed downstream from the celiac artery of the dogfish shark. Bull. MDIBL, 1937, p. 31 and Bull. MDIBL, 1938, pp. 16–18.
- 19.
Hegner will be discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.
- 20.
Letter from Cole to Hadley, September 14, 1937; in MDIBL Archives.
- 21.
Letter from Hadley to Cole, November 3, 1937; in MDIBL Archives.
- 22.
Letters from Cole to Hadley, November 13 and December 6, 1937; in MDIBL Archives.
- 23.
Copies of letters of support in MDIBL Archives.
- 24.
Typed letter (with typos and corrections) from Dahlgren to Hadley, April 8, 1940; in MDIBL archives.
- 25.
Ibid.
- 26.
Letter of April 9, 1940 from Cole to Trustees; in MDIBL Archives
- 27.
Letter in MDIBL Archives
- 28.
Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, p. 202; in MDIBL Archives. The weekly Park tours to the MDIBL continued, however (Op Cit. p. 205)
- 29.
In the same way that the noted T. H. Morgan, E. B. Wilson, and Robert Chambers spent short periods at the Harpswell Laboratory before it was moved to MDI.
- 30.
MDIBL Director’s Report (1930), pp. 34–40. Prosser received his Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins in 1932.
- 31.
Interestingly, the first edition was published in 1951 and was reviewed in Science by W.H. Cole who, after a rather critical analysis, ended by stating: “in spite of the criticism mentioned above, it is by far the best text of its kind in the English language. No other can even approach it in its coverage and presentation. It will surely find wide usage among biologists. It will also unquestionably stimulate research in animal physiology because of the repeated emphasis put upon the large amount of work remaining to be done.” (Cole 1951) The book went through 4 editions in over 40 years. A personal note: The author underlined much of his copy of the second edition of the Prosser text when studying for his qualifying exams in graduate school in 1963 and was fortunate enough to be in a Prosser training course at the MBL in the summer of 1965. In a mirror image of Prosser’s marine station history, the author spent that one summer at the MBL and, starting in 1978, the rest of his career at the MDIBL.
- 32.
American Physiological Society online obituary: http://www.the-aps.org/mm/Membership/Obituaries/C-Ladd-Prosser.html
- 33.
Bull. MDIBL, 1940, pp. 27–29
- 34.
In a letter to Wendell Burger in September 1945, Dahlgren noted that “Frank Brown, our erstwhile colleague in the course at the Cove is now head man in the course in Woods Hole with seven instructors under him.” Letter in MDIBL Archives.
- 35.
Bull. MDIBL (1935), p. 22
- 36.
Ibid
- 37.
Miami Herald, November 28, 1989
- 38.
Biographical Note; Inventory of the Arthur Sperry Pearse papers, 1904–1960 and undated. http://library.duke.edu/digitalcollections/rbmscl/uaaspearse/inv/
- 39.
Bull. MDIBL (1939), pp. 15–22
- 40.
- 41.
Bull. MDIBL (1940), pp. 14–20
- 42.
Bull MDIBL (1938), pp. 23–25
- 43.
Jenner (2004), p. 413. Evo-devo is the term applied to the study of the evolution of developmental processes. See, for instance, http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evodevo_01).
- 44.
Pitts wrote Smith’s biography for the National Academy of Sciences (Pitts 1967).
- 45.
MDIBL Director’s Report (1931), pp. 28–29
- 46.
Annual Announcement for 1933 and Report for 1932 of the Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, p. 18. Also published as Pitts (1934)
- 47.
Bull. MDIBL (1939), pp. 34–35. Also Pitts (1939)
- 48.
- 49.
Pitts (1963). Pitts returned to the MDIBL to give seminars in 1951 (Bull MDIBL 1953, p. 25) and 1956 (Minutes of the Annual Meeting, 1956, in MDIBL Archives).
- 50.
- 51.
Biographical Note, Mast Papers in the Special Collections of the Milton S. Eisenhower Library of Johns Hopkins: http://ead.library.jhu.edu/ms135.xml
- 52.
Op. Cit., p. iii. It appears that Mast did not present the usual public lecture associated with this very prestigious award, because the list of “Past Cartwright Lecturers” online (http://www.cumc.columbia.edu/events/deanlectures/cartwright.html#past) does not include a notation for 1909. However, the significance of the award is confirmed by some of the lecturers that are listed: William Osler (1886), Sir Peter Medawar (1980), Joshua Lederberg (1981), Sir Bernard Katz (1986), David Baltimore (1989), and Bert Sakmann (2008).
- 53.
- 54.
Bull. MDIBL (1937), p. 3. Mast must have worked at the MBL in subsequent years, since it was listed, along with Johns Hopkins, on his papers in the 1930s, in the Biological Bulletin, the journal of the MBL.
- 55.
MDIBL Director’s Report (1930), pp. 34–40. Ladd Prosser was a coauthor on this report.
- 56.
MDIBL Director’s Report (1931), pp. 23–28
- 57.
MDIBL Director’s Report (1931), p. 28. One cannot help but think that this was an opportunistic study, undertaken because a member of the research team started watching ants moving in or near the small laboratory where the protozoan work was going on. It is a striking example of a scientific approach to a common observation.
- 58.
Presumably recruited by the Lewises, who lived in the same neighborhood (Roland Park) outside Baltimore. The Masts and Johnsons (Duncan Johnson had been at Harpswell and was now at the MDIBL) also lived nearby (Lewis et al. 1998, p. 77).
- 59.
- 60.
Medical Archives of the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions: Robert W. Hegner Collection, Biography, http://www.medicalarchives.jhmi.edu/papers/hegner.html, and Corliss (1978), pp. 438–439
- 61.
- 62.
Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, p. 52; in MDIBL Archives
- 63.
MDIBL Director’s Report (1930), p. 30
- 64.
MDIBL Director’s Report (1932), pp. 35–36
- 65.
Bull. MDIBL (1939), p. 14
- 66.
Copy of Warranty Deed in MDIBL Archives. Book 627, Page 499 in Hancock Registry of Deeds
- 67.
- 68.
First mentioned at the Annual Trustee’s Meeting on August 9th. Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, p. 51, in MDIBL Archives
- 69.
Op Cit., p. 59
- 70.
Called by President Bumpus at the American Museum of Natural History. Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, p. 61, in MDIBL Archives
- 71.
Op Cit., pp. 65–70
- 72.
Dr. Margaret Hoskins was a member of NYU Dental School faculty. She first appears in the MDIBL records as an investigator in 1928 (Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, p. 52, in MDIBL Archives) and appears in the list of investigators for the summers of 1930 and 1931 (Director’s Reports in MDIBL Archives). But no reports of any research were contained in the Director’s Reports for those years, and her name did not appear in listings of investigators for subsequent years. She sold her cottage to the Laboratory in 1946 or 1947 (Burger 1998, p. 37).
- 73.
Dr. Esther Byrnes received all three of her degrees at Bryn Mawr (Ph.D., 1898) and then served as a senior instructor in physiology and biology at the Philadelphia Girl’s High School from 1898 to 1932 (Ogilvie and Harvey 2000, pp. 216–217). There is no record of her actually being an investigator at the MDIBL, but she apparently lived in the cottage, with her artist sister, until the summer of 1946. Because of ill-health, she donated the cottage to Bryn Mawr, which subsequently gave it to the MDIBL (Burger 1998, p. 37). The small, glassed-in, structure (ca. 7′ square) that her sister had used for a studio was subsequently moved near Bowen Hall as housing for a very few male students, but as Burger wrote “Despite some uncertain efforts at curtaining, a view from the outside gave viewers a liberated view of the young male” (Ibid). This must have been in the early 1970s, because Barbara Rappaport remembers that Jeff Ratner was one of the occupants (Rappaport 1998, p. 131). Ratner subsequently became an M.D. in Bar Harbor and married Mary Rieck, whose father had been a Director of the MDIBL (1959–1964; see Chap. 6). The old art studio/men’s dorm was moved to the new shop area in the 1990s and housed landscaping equipment, until it was torn down in 2013.
- 74.
Copies of the deeds are in the MDIBL Archives and Books 631, 633, 635, and 638 of the Hancock County Registry of Deeds.
- 75.
Margaret Lewis celebrated her 100th birthday there in the summer of 2011, but passed away in December, 2012.
- 76.
Unsigned, handwritten history of the Hegner Cottage, in MDIBL Archives
- 77.
In fact, in the research reports for 1950–1952; 53 %, 83 %, and 64 % of the investigators are listed as “renal physiology.” Bull MDIBL (1953), pp. 11, 23, 35. Such designations ceased after that. In a 1999 review entitled “Origins of Renal Physiology in the USA,” Gerhard Giebisch and Robert Berliner (who had worked at the MDIBL in the late 1950s) wrote: “It is also worthy of mention that progress in renal physiology in the US owes much to work carried out in clinical departments and to the type of comparative studies exemplified by work at the Mt. Desert Island Biological Laboratory” (Giebisch and Berliner 1999, p. 273).
- 78.
Smith’s first paper with MDIBL stated that “the program… was carried out at Salisbury Cove during the summer of 1924” (Smith 1925), p. 348.
- 79.
Marshall writes about his first summer: “Homer Smith, whom I had first met as an assistant of mine in World War I days, was here working on sand dollar eggs…Dahlgren was delightful, aside from not obtaining goosefish, and led me to study the kidneys and their function in many other marine fish. Procter had a very active group, working on a Biological Survey of the surrounding waters, with their headquarters in the present ‘Kidney Shed.’ Each morning, Procter would come in his boat to take the workers on the water for collecting specimens” (Marshall 1998, p. 58).
- 80.
Except for specific citations, this biographical information is from Pitts (1967).
- 81.
- 82.
For a brief history of Cannon’s career, see http://www.the-aps.org/fm/presidents/introwbc.html
- 83.
Listed as a “Beginning Investigator, Physiology” in 1921 and “Independent Investigator, Physiology” in 1922–1924 (MBL Archives). There seems to be some overlap between his 1924 summer at the MBL and his arrival at the MDIBL the same summer.
- 84.
Smith and Clowes (1924a, b, c, d). It is interesting to note that the first paper is in an issue of the AJP that also contained papers by Margaret Lewis, S.O. Mast (2), and the Nobel laureate August Krogh, as well as the codiscover of insulin, Charles H. B Best, who many felt should have received the Nobel Prize (Best 2003).
- 85.
Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, pp. 29 and 74; in MDIBL Archives
- 86.
At NYU, Smith was associated initially with Drs. William Goldring and Herbert Chasis who were clinical nephrologists (Bradley 1998, p. 98). Chasis was a “pioneer in identifying the importance of high blood pressure…and remained active at [NYU] until 1997, 64 years after he joined the faculty.” During WWII, “he was asked to find ways that sailors could stay alive on life rafts at sea at a time when warships were being torpedoed in the Atlantic. He theorized that pressing fish and drinking fish juice could supply the life-sustaining moisture, and he tested the diet on a group of conscientious objectors put on a ship in the Hudson River for several days in an experiment…They all fared well.” NY Times, May 23, 1998. Goldring and Chasis published a book on hypertension in 1944 (Goldring and Chasis 1944).
- 87.
Then called Siam, on a Guggenheim Fellowship (Pitts 1967, p. 454), referred to, rather informally, also in Smith (1931a, p. 279). “Through the favor of the John Simon Gugenheim [sic] Memorial Foundation, Mrs. Smith and myself were enabled to examine certain fresh-water elasmobranchs in Siam and Malaya.”
- 88.
- 89.
“The first eight fish were obtained at the Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory and the next five through the courtesy of Mr. C. M. Breder of the New York Aquarium” (Smith 1931b, p. 298).
- 90.
Op. Cit., p. 299
- 91.
Ibid
- 92.
Op Cit., p. 300. Interestingly, the urea concentration of the blood of most elasmobranchs is nearly 100 times that measured in normal human plasma.
- 93.
- 94.
Smith (1930). Parenthetically, Smith’s model for osmoregulation by marine teleosts was so complete that, when this author applied for his first NSF grant in 1970 to study this system further, one reviewer concluded that the grant was not worth funding because “Smith had told us all we need to know about marine teleost fish osmoregulation.” Fortunately, the other reviewers did not agree.
- 95.
- 96.
- 97.
Smith (1929b), p. 742; By 1937, August Krogh had found that ammonia excretion was actually coupled with sodium uptake (Krogh 1937). For a more complete discussion of this work, and the ensuing studies that have generated a more complex, yet still not definitive, picture of ammonia excretion across the fish gill epithelium, see Evans (2008, 2011) and Wright and Wood (2009, 2012).
- 98.
For a more extensive discussion of the fossil record and the placement of hagfishes in piscine evolution, and their osmoregulation, see Evans and Claiborne (2009).
- 99.
For example, Evans and Claiborne (2009)
- 100.
- 101.
Shannon and Smith (1935). In this paper, Shannon and Smith refer to earlier work by Shannon at the MDIBL, showing that the aglomerular toadfish and sculpin do not excrete inulin in the urine, supporting the proposition that inulin is not secreted by the proximal renal tubule and therefore is appropriate for use as a marker for GFR (Shannon 1934).
- 102.
The American Society of Nephrology presents the annual Homer Smith Award “to an individual who has made outstanding contributions which fundamentally affect the science of nephrology, broadly defined, but not limited to, the pathobiology, cellular and molecular mechanisms and genetic influences on the functions and diseases of the kidney. Established in 1964, this award recognizes one of the major intellectual forces in renal physiology.” The award web page (http://www.asn-online.org/awards/smith.aspx) goes on to say: “Dr. Smith spent the majority of his professional career at New York University, moving there in 1928 following a 3-year tenure as Chairman of Physiology at the University of Virginia. As director of the Physiology Laboratories at NYU he developed and refined his concepts of glomerular filtration and tubular absorption and secretion of solutes. The clarity of his logic and the skill with which he explained his ideas transformed them into vivid and powerful concepts that are the cornerstones of our present understanding of normal and abnormal renal function. He attracted the best and brightest into the field, not only to NYU, but also to the Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory where he spent many summers studying renal physiology in fish. His use of comparative approaches to explain normal human physiology stands as a model for students of biology and scientists attempting to unravel the mysteries of normal and disordered renal function. This award is in recognition of those who follow in his footsteps and contribute to our understanding of how the kidney functions normally and in disease states.” In 1945, Smith was elected to the National Academy of Sciences, and, in 1948, he received the Lasker Award (Pitts 1967, p. 456), which in modern times often precedes the Nobel Prize.
- 103.
Smith (1936a), Bull MDIBL (1941), pp. 21–22
- 104.
Forster (1998, p. 94). Forster goes on to say “he was deeply interested in music and his lovely home with the view over a meadow on the shore of Eastern Bay was the cultural and intellectual center of the lab community” (see Fig. 10).
- 105.
- 106.
Entitled Komogo, or The Lungfish and the Padre, this small book was written as a dialogue between a biologist and priest on a riverboat traveling up the Red Sea to Port Saïd. It gives the reader Smith’s views of science vs. religion, in the context of evolution. It was chosen as a Pocket Overseas Edition for the armed forces during WWII and was a monthly selection for the Natural History Club after the war. “Republication meant resetting the book because it had long been out of print and the plates had contributed their share to winning World War II during the metal shortage of 1943–1944” (Smith 1952b, p. 448).
- 107.
Smith describes the origin of Christian theology and liturgy in the context of ancient religions in the Middle East. Albert Einstein wrote the Foreword, stating “The work is a broadly conceived attempt to portray man's fear-induced animistic and mythic ideas with all their far-flung transformations and interrelations. It relates the impact of these phantasmagorias on human destiny and the causal relationships by which they have become crystallized into organized religion. This is a biologist speaking, whose scientific training has disciplined him in a grim objectivity rarely found in the pure historian. This objectivity has not, however, hindered him from emphasizing the boundless suffering which, in its end results, this mythic thought has brought upon man.” For an online version, go to: http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/homer1a.htm#TOC. There is a very personal autobiography of Smith at the end of this book, in which he describes the bases for his personal beliefs and defends his competence to deal with history or philosophy by quoting the Arab Mira Jama (in Isak Dinesen’s Seven Gothic Tales): ‘What is man, when you come to think upon him, but a minutely set, ingenious machine for turning, with infinite artfulness, the red wine of Shiraz into urine?’ Any deficit in discipline is in part compensated by a novelty in point of view: most historians and philosophers lack the advantage of a biologist’s or physiologist’s intimate acquaintance with man's inner workings” (Smith 1952b, p. 450).
- 108.
Burger (1998, p. 34) Burger goes on to describe Mrs. Neal in her last years. “She considered herself the Queen Mother of the Lab, as though Herbert and she had given it birth. Faithfully, although legally both blind and deaf, she attended all Seminars and public functions, hiking alone through rain and fog.”
- 109.
- 110.
As described by Wendell Burger: “Another promotional event was the 4th of July Picnic held on the rocky beach of the Laboratory. Not only were workers invited, but also members of the Corporation, Associate Members, and guests. The Laboratory provided steamed clams. Everyone brought his own picnic. Chauffeur-driven Pierce-Arrows would come to the Laboratory Point, disgorge choice picnic paraphernalia, chairs, and hampers, and then desperately try to turn around in limited space. Several affluent women had their cooks bake specialties for the whole picnic. One remembers, incidentally, that in those days the children were not free to help themselves (Burger 1998, pp. 32–33).” It is not clear when these picnics started at the Laboratory, but by the late 1930s, detailed accounts of the weather, food, and participants were kept in the files. For instance, we know that for the 1938 picnic, the day was cloudy, foggy, with rain and sunshine and that Marshall brought potato salad and cookies; Smith, Cole, and Dahgren each brought four dozen rolls; and Hegner brought three cakes, but there was a shortage of salads “with complaints.” The laboratory supplied clams, although it was noted that the lab was “a little slow on clam service—two persons to dish them out would be better” (Handwritten document in MDIBL Archives). If the weather was inclement, the picnics were held in the Grange Hall across from the laboratory or in the dining hall (Bowen Hall).
- 111.
- 112.
At the dedication on July 28, 1989, it was said: “Summers at the Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory were an essential part of Smith’s life. Most of his time was spent in reading, writing, and just being available. Young and old took advantage of this availability. He was a “presence” that enriched the laboratory more by being than by occasional visits to the benches and dock where experiments were in progress. Homer Smith was a heroic figure in physiology. He will long be remembered for his landmark scientific papers in renal physiology, for his trainees who in turn made original contributions to physiology and medicine, and for his use of evolutionary biology to understand life on earth and man’s place in nature (Fishman, A. P., Bull. MDIBL, 29, 1990, p. 2).
- 113.
Annual Announcement for 1933 and Report for 1932 of the Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, pp. 36–37
- 114.
For an excellent biography of Shannon’s life and research, see Kennedy (1998).
- 115.
- 116.
Bull. MDIBL (1938), p. 14, (1939), p. 14
- 117.
Bull. MDIBL (1938), p. 28, Shannon (1938a)
- 118.
Now called Experimental Biology, followed by the year (e.g., EB 2015)
- 119.
Forster (1998, p. 87). There will be more of Roy Forster later in this chapter. Suffice it say that he would go on to provide scientific and administrative leadership at the MDIBL for the next 40 years, including the resurrection of the Laboratory after WWII.
- 120.
Bull. MDIBL (1953), p. 35
- 121.
Although Shannon apparently facilitated (“helped arrange for” in Burger’s words) E. K. Marshall’s proposal to the NIH in 1949, which generated $10,000 for the Laboratory (Burger 1998, p. 39). As we shall see in Chap. 4, this grant reversed the financial decline of the Laboratory in 1950. Shannon gave a seminar (“Advances in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases”) in the Tuesday Evening Seminar Program in August, 1952 (MDIBL Minutes of Annual Meeting 1952, p. 8; in MDIBL Archives).
- 122.
During Shannon’s tenure, the transfer of the Library of Medicine to the NIH took place, and the following Divisions were added to the NIH: Center for Aging Research, Division of General Medical Sciences, Center for Research in Child Health and Human Development, National Institute of General Medical Sciences, Division of Computer Research and Technology, Division of Regional Medical Programs, Division of Environmental Health Scienes, John Fogarty International Center for Advanced Studies in the Health Sciences, and the National Eye Institute.
- 123.
For a short biography of Bradley, see Christy (2001).
- 124.
Bull MDIBL (1941), p. 21, Bradley and Bing (1942). Bradley’s research on seals continued after WWII, and Burger remembered a trip to pick up young experimental animals at the Boothbay Harbor (now Bigelow) Laboratory down the coast: “Investigators working on the machinery which handled body fluids were interested in how a marine mammal works. The high salt of the sea presents a problem as the fluids of mammals are less salty. Young seals seemed ideal. The adult seals are too large and powerful and space consumptive for convenient work. Young seals often unweaned can be netted from convenient rocks. For a variety of reasons, Maine could not supply seals. But, there were workmen who legally could do so on their own time. Arrangements were made and over many years seals were provided. Once Stanley Bradley and I went to get the seals in a pick-up. We put a heavy tarp over the bed, stopped on the main street of Boothbay harbor for lunch. The caterwauling of the hidden seals confused passers-by. On the way home, the seals discovered how to poke out from under the tarps, and as one looked out of the cab window a winsome face peered back” (Burger 1998, p. 50).
- 125.
Working on circulation in the dogfish in 1950 (Bull MDIBL 1953, p. 13), and appearing on the roster of scientific personnel in 1952 and 1956.
- 126.
The cottage was subsequently purchased by Jose Zadunaisky in the 1990s then sold to the Karnakys, who replaced it with a rammed earth home in 2010.
- 127.
In the late 1970s and 1980s, Bradley established a “Director’s Discretionary Fund” to which he added, anonymously, $400 per year. When the author was Director in the mid-1980s, these funds were used to underwrite the annual Director’s Party for the members of the Board of Trustees.
- 128.
Aglomerular kidneys lack the glomerulus, the mass of capillaries at the proximal end of the kidney tubules that provides a filtration surface for the initial formation of urine. Aglomerular kidneys can only form urine by secretion of solutes and water into the kidney tubules.
- 129.
Scientific name: Lophius americanus. See http://www.gma.org/fogm/Lophius_americanus.htm)
- 130.
The Marshalls actually lived on the same street as the Lewises, two blocks away (Lewis et al. 1998, p. 78).
- 131.
One of Homer Smith’s colleagues, Alfred Fishman remembered a slightly more entertaining rendition of this story: “Marshall’s cocktail parties were famous for the high gin content of his martinis. His technique for preparing martinis was classical; it centered around the use of a cold jug and glasses cooled in the refrigerator; the resultant cold drink was partially anesthetic, blurring estimates of how much gin was being consumed; vermouth was of little consequence since it was added in only trivial amounts. The story is told that at one of Marshall’s parties, in an animated conversation about the need for a proper species to settle the Marshall-Richards debate, Warren H. Lewis disclosed that he knew of a species of aglomerular fish that could be obtained locally. He knew of the fish, Lophius Piscatorius [sic], “Goosefish” or “Monkfish”, because he had been introduced to it as a source of fine fish steaks while traveling abroad. Subsequently, he had learned of its availability in Southwest Harbor; indeed, he knew of fishermen who would be willing to bring the fish up from the deep waters in which they resided” (Fishman 1998).
- 132.
Grafflin became a professor Anatomy at Harvard in the early 1930s and his summer’s research at the MDIBL during that decade produced a significant body of literature on fish kidney structure and function; e.g., Grafflin (1931, 1933, 1935, 1936, 1937a, b, c), Grafflin and Gould (1936). Grafflin was married for a time to Hegner’s daughter, Isabel, for whom the Hegner Laboratory was subsequently named (Lewis et al. 1998, p. 85).
- 133.
- 134.
- 135.
The species name of L. piscatorius was applied to both eastern and western Atlantic goosefish at this point. The local goosefish is now placed in the species americanus. See Bigelow and Schroeder (1964) as well as http://www.gma.org/fogm/
- 136.
Surprisingly, these did include biochemistry, physiology, or pharmacology, which Marshall apparently never took (Maren 1987, p. 317).
- 137.
Ibid
- 138.
Smith mentioned his stuttering in his biography at the end of Man and His Gods: “There is no evidence that I ever showed any tendency to left-handedness, and I believe that I am intrinsically right-handed, but in any case by the age of five or thereabouts I began to stutter and thereafter all my efforts at speech culminated only in a series of painful lingual paralyses, broken at interminable intervals by a forcibly ejected word. I continued to stutter until I was 30 years old, but the handicap has long since been mastered and for 25 years I have, with few exceptions, faced audiences however large or small with an almost arrogant confidence. But stuttering probably drove me as a child into silence and introspection” (Smith 1952b, pp. 450–451).
- 139.
Krogh had been awarded the Nobel Prize in 1920 for his work on the regulation of capillary blood flow. He is also the namesake for the “Krogh Principle,” which posits that for most physiological questions, there is an animal of choice on which it can be best studied. However, a recent publication (Barker Jorgensen 2001) suggests that the comparative approach that underlies the Krogh Principle more likely originated with the French physiologist Claude Bernard. Nevertheless, it is likely that Marshall became interested in the comparative approach after visiting Krogh, and the use of an aglomerular fish to study tubular secretion is an exemplary use of the Krogh Principle. Krogh’s daughter, Bodil Schmidt-Nielsen, was recruited to the MDIBL by Homer Smith in 1952. Her subsequent impact on the science and administration of the MDIBL, which would last more than three decades, will be discussed in Chap. 5.
- 140.
The outgoing Chair was J. J. Abel, who had recruited the young Marshall into his department and insisted that Marshall get a medical degree.
- 141.
See Maren (1987, pp. 331–340) for an interesting discussion of Marshall’s research forays into very disparate fields.
- 142.
On Marshall’s manner, Maren wrote: “His physical presence matched his cast of mind. Tall, thin, handsome, well-groomed, and formal, with a strident voice bearing the accent of Charleston, he was uninhibited in giving opinions or criticism of scientific peers. He was famous for his (well-placed) profanity, but this too was selective and emphatic. Three old-fashioned staples were used with such skill (damn, hell, and bastard) that he never needed or even hinted at the sexual expletives. He had the social graces of his ‘caste,’ but no social ambitions or ‘snobbery.’ He was a very private person and would not share personal or family adversities” (Maren 1987, pp. 321–322). Roy Forster remembers that “[Marshall] was still keenly interested in new developments and he had a prodigious memory regarding renal matters in the old days. “My God, man, we showed that more than twenty years ago” was an expression one heard frequently. On such occasions when you were caught in a lapse of one sort or another he had a way of icily addressing you as “Doctor” so that you were not only stripped of that degree but also of every other award you had ever received back to and including your grammar school diploma” (Forster 1998, p. 92).
- 143.
One scientist’s child, Terence Boylan, had precociously started his own experiments on the effects of laboratory alcohol on kidney function in fishes. He remembers Marshall entering his small laboratory, asking what the young Boylan was doing, then leaving, only to reappear an hour later with a bottle of Gilbey’s gin. Marshall remarked that at least Boylan should give the fish some good alcohol (Terence Boylan, pers. comm).
- 144.
When the first winterized laboratory was built at the MDIBL 5 years later, it was named for Marshall. In 2010, it was demolished and replaced by a modern laboratory building, called the Davis Laboratory and housing the Davis Center for Regenerative Biology and Medicine.
- 145.
- 146.
- 147.
- 148.
It appears that his dissertation research was never published.
- 149.
“Shannon encouraged me in 1937 to shift my attention to amphibians with the objective of resolving conflicts in interpreting data on urea and phenol red transport that derived, on one hand from frog and Necturus micropuncture studies and, on the other, from clearance studies on intact animals. This I resolved to do” (Forster 1998, p. 88).
- 150.
He also produced a study demonstrating glomerular intermittency in the frog: Bull MDIBL (1940), pp. 36–37.
- 151.
Bull MDIBL (1941), pp. 33–36. See also Forster (1998, pp. 89–90)
- 152.
The contract brought $1000 into the laboratory (at a time when the yearly expenses were $1400), but over 90 % of the income was needed for the research, “so little financial assistance accrued to the laboratory. However, we believe that the service to the State is very much worth while from the standpoint of the State and of the laboratory, and we are hoping that the relationship will continue.” Director’s Report for 1940 in Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, pp. 187 and 189; in MDIBL Archives.
- 153.
Forster was the 4th Director of the MDIBL, succeeding William Cole and serving until 1947.
- 154.
Dahlgren was also President of the MDIBL from 1937 to 1946, succeeding Warren Lewis (who had followed Hermon Bumpus), who served from 1932 to 1937.
- 155.
Announcement of the 31st Season of the MDIBL (1929), p. 9. In MDIBL Archives
- 156.
Myxine is the genus of hagfish that is found in local waters. Director Report for 1930, Announcement of the 33rd Season of the MDIBL, p. 16; in MDIBL Archives.
- 157.
Op. Cit., p. 17. This was the first summer that abstracts of summer research projects were published by the Laboratory. Dahgren’s description suggests that he was still working on a survey of local species—in the mode of Procter, who had left 3 years previously.
- 158.
Director Report for 1931, Announcement of the 34th Season of the MDIBL, pp. 14–15; in MDIBL Archives
- 159.
Director Report for 1932, Announcement of the 35th Season of the MDIBL, p. 14, in MDIBL Archives
- 160.
Bull. MDIBL (1938), p. 12
- 161.
Bull. MDIBL (1935), pp. 19–21, Bull MDIBL (1936), p. 23
- 162.
Bull. MDIBL (1938), pp. 8–9. As indicated in Chap. 2, Neal had started a similar course in the late 1920s, but it had been abandoned after a few years.
- 163.
Ibid. Dwight Minnich was Chair of Zoology at the University of Minnesota, which was one of the institutions that sponsored a laboratory room at the MDIBL during this period (Bull MDIBL 1941, p. 7). He worked on various aspects of photoreceptive cells in invertebrates during the 1940s (e.g., Bull MDIBL 1940, pg 24; 1941, p. 27; Anat Rec 84; 83–84, 1942; Bull MDIBL 1950, pp. 27–28) and served as President of the MDIBL from 1946 to 1950, succeeding Ulric Dahlgren.
- 164.
Bill Amos went on to become a world-renowned author and videographer of wildlife, producing an array of popular natural history papers, books, and films, many of which were sponsored by the National Geographic Society. Amos reappeared at the MDIBL in the 1990s, giving a series of public lectures in the early stages of the MDIBL’s Development program. The author remembers canoeing with Amos in the early 1990s on Hamilton Pond, when Amos related his interesting work as an interrogator (he spoke Japanese) of Japanese captives during WWII. He spoke about one Japanese pilot with whom he became quite friendly, until he discovered that the man had led one of the squadrons during the first wave of the Pearl Harbor attack.
- 165.
The bust of Anton Dohrn (the founder of the Stazione Zoologica Napoli in Italy, the first marine station in the world) had been donated by the Warburg family of New York in 1938 (Letter from Ulric Dahlgren to Reinhard Dohrn, April 3, 1938; in MDIBL Archives). Its sculptor was Fritz Behn. In 1979 the MDIBL considered donating the bust to the Naples Marine Station, but the MDIBL Trustees decided to honor the Warburg donation and keep the bust (Minutes of the Continuation Meeting of the Board of Trustees, August 16, 1979, p. 3, and Letter from President Raymond Rappaport to the archivist of the Naples Station, October 6, 1979; in MDIBL Archives). The Dohrn bust, along with the bust of S. Weir Mitchell, currently is in storage at the MDIBL.
- 166.
Amos (1998, p. 70). Buchsbaum was also listed as a Senior Investigator for the summer of 1947 (Bull. MDIBL 1950, p. 21).
- 167.
Op. Cit., p. 71. Amos was not the only course alumnus to make important contributions to biology. William D. Blake became a noted nephrologist and Chair of Physiology at the University of Maryland, and Hewson Swift became a pioneering cell biologist and member of the National Academy of Sciences (http://www.uchospitals.edu/news/2004/20040115-swift.html).
- 168.
Op. Cit., p. 70
- 169.
Bull MDIBL (1938), p. 14
- 170.
Moment was replaced by F.A. Brown, Jr. in 1940. Bull. MDIBL (1941), p. 13.
- 171.
Biographical Sketch, Goucher College Special Collections and Archives, Gairdner B. Moment Papers, 1932–1989. Goucher College Library.
- 172.
Bull. MDIBL (1938), pp. 19–22; 1939, pp. 27–28
- 173.
Burger followed Forster as Director, serving from 1947 to 1950.
- 174.
Personal communication from his son, Jim Burger, in an email, 22 August 2011
- 175.
Bull. MDIBL (1939), pp. 39–40;(Burger (1939) This species can be easily caught in local streams and kept in the laboratory. It is euryhaline (able to tolerate wide salinity variations) and has been a mainstay of research at the MDIBL for most of the lab’s history.
- 176.
Bull. MDIBL (1941), pp. 19–21; Burger (1940)
- 177.
Bevelander was S. O. Mast’s student at Johns Hopkins.
- 178.
MDIBL Director’s Report (1930), pp. 19–20, MDIBL Director’s Report (1931), pp. 29–30; Bevelander (1933)
- 179.
- 180.
In 1953, Bevelander published the second edition of his Essentials of Histology, coauthored by Margaret Hoskins (Bevelander and Hoskins 1953). During the 1950s and early 1960s, Bevelander returned to work on calcification in mollusks, echinoderms, and arthropods (Bull MDIBL 1956, p. 12, p. 26, 1959, pp. 12–13, 38–39, 1962, p. 20, pp. 75–77), which he had begun in the late 1940s at the Bermuda Biological Station (Bevelander and Benzer 1948). He also collaborated with David Karnofsky (see Chap. 5) on the effects of toxins on the sand dollar embryo (Bull MDIBL 1959, pp. 50–51; Karnofsky 1958).
- 181.
Director’s Report 1956, in MDIBL Archives. Bevelander worked on a variety of subjects the next five summers, including calcification in sand dollar embryos and the effects of toxins on the fertilized sand dollar egg (Bull. MDIBL 1959, pp. 12 and 14); the effect of calcium reduction or tetracycline on skeletal development in the sand dollar (Op. Cit, pp. 38 and 61); and the effect of tetracycline on calcification in regenerating scales in the killifish (Bull MDIBL 1962, pp. 19–20)
- 182.
Unsigned document, entitled “Land and Residential Housing in Salisbury Cove,” dated 2/83, possibly written by Roy Forster or William Doyle (MDIBL Archives).
- 183.
The study found that inhibition of carbohydrate metabolism by treating early echinoderm embryos with iodoacetate or phloridzin did not affect the normal differentiation of the animal and vegetal poles (Bull MDIBL 1941, p. 14). His wife, Dorothy, was his collaborator and the work was subsequently published in Needham and Needham (1940).
- 184.
Culminating in the multi-volume series Science and Civilization in China, originally published by Cambridge University Press (starting in 1954), but currently being published by the Needham Research Institute at Cambridge.
- 185.
Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, p. 186, in MDIBL Archives
- 186.
Op Cit., p. 187
- 187.
Dahgren wrote: “Dr. Neal was lost to us in an automobile accident on the way home from his second Mexican trip. His friends in the laboratory will long remember his charming and interesting personality as well as his courageous integrity and so useful ability. We shall sadly miss him in the organization of the Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory” (Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926–1948, pp. 192–193; in MDIBL Archives.) At a subsequent meeting of the Trustees on August 17, 1940, they, in consultation with Mrs. Bowen, agreed to a new lease for Bow End for Mrs. Neal (Minutes, Mount Desert Island Biological Laboratory, 1926-1948, p. 197; in MDIBL Archives).
- 188.
Op Cit., p. 189
- 189.
Ibid
- 190.
Op Cit., p. 190
- 191.
Op Cit., p. 205
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Evans, D.H. (2015). The Second Generation: MDIBL in the 1930s. In: Marine Physiology Down East: The Story of the Mt. Desert Island Biological Laboratory. Perspectives in Physiology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2960-3_3
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