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Smoke Control by Mechanical Exhaust or Natural Venting

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SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering

Abstract

Smoke management in large-volume spaces, such as atria and covered malls, poses separate and distinct challenges from well-compartmented spaces. In particular, smoke control strategies using pressure differences and physical barriers described by Klote in Chap. 50, and NFPA 92, Standard for Smoke-Control Systems [1], are infeasible. Without physical barriers, smoke propagation is unimpeded, spreading easily throughout the entire space. The tall ceiling heights in many large-volume spaces pose additional challenges because of the production of substantial quantities of smoke and delayed detection times. However, on the positive side, the combination of large-volume space and tall ceiling height permit the smoke to become diluted and cooled as it spreads vertically and horizontally, thereby reducing the level of hazard posed by the smoke. Even so, there is still a need to ensure that dangerous concentrations of smoke are prevented in large-volume spaces.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Maryland, Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA

    James A. Milke

Authors
  1. James A. Milke
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Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Aon Fire Protection Engineering, Greenbelt, MD, USA

    Morgan J. Hurley P.E., FSFPE (Editor-in-Chief) (Editor-in-Chief)

  2. Hughes Associates, Baltimore, USA

    Daniel Gottuk Ph.D., P.E.

  3. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, USA

    John R. Hall Jr. Ph.D.

  4. Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan

    Kazunori Harada Dr. Eng.

  5. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, USA

    Erica Kuligowski Ph.D.

  6. Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, USA

    Milosh Puchovsky P.E., FSFPE

  7. The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia

    José Torero Ph.D.

  8. The Fire Safety Institute, Quincy, USA

    John M. Watts Jr. Ph.D., FSFPE

  9. FM Global, Johnston, USA

    Christopher Wieczorek Ph.D.

Nomenclature and Subscripts

A

Cross-sectional area of the atrium (m2)

A o

Cross-sectional area of opening (m2)

b

Distance from the store opening to the balcony edge (m)

C CO

Volumetric concentration of carbon monoxide (ppm)

c p

Specific heat (kJ/kg-K)

D

Optical density per unit pathlength (m−1)

D m

Mass optical density (m2/kg)

d

Plume diameter (based on excess temperature) (m)

d o

Diameter of fire (m)

f CO

Yield fraction of CO (kgCO/kgfuel)

f i

Yield fraction of species i (kg of species i per kg of fuel consumed)

g

Gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2)

H

Height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)

H b

Height of balcony above top of fuel surface (m)

H c

Heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

H c,conv

Convective heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

h

Enthalpy

K

Constant, depending on target being viewed (e.g., = 6 for lighted signs)[3]

k

Thermal conductivity (W/m⋅K)

k v

Volumetric entrainment constant (0.065 m4/3 kW ⋅−1/3⋅ s−1)

L

Width of balcony spill plume (m)

l

Characteristic length (m)

MW i

Molecular weight of species i (kg)

M CO

Molecular weight of carbon monoxide (28 kg)

M air

Molecular weight of air (29 kg)

m u

Mass of upper smoke layer (kg)

ṁ

Mass entrainment rate in plume (kg/s)

m f

Mass burning rate (kg/s)

Δp

Pressure difference (Pa)

r

Radius (i.e., horizontal distance from plume centerline (m)

Q

\( =\frac{1055}{t_g^2}\frac{t^3}{3} \) for t 2 fires (kJ)

Q=

\( \dot{Q} \) t for steady fires (kJ)

Q o =

ρ o c p T o A(H–z) (kJ)

\( \dot{Q} \)

Heat release rate of fire (kW)

\( {\dot{Q}}_c \)

Convective portion of heat release rate of fire (kW)

T c

Temperature at plume centerline (K)

T

Temperature (K)

ΔT ad

Temperature difference between smoke layer and ambient air (°C)

ΔT o

Prefire temperature change from floor to ceiling of the ambient air (°C)

t

Time (s)

t cj

Ceiling jet transport lag (s)

t g

Growth time (s)

t pl

Plume transport lag (s)

V

Volumetric flow rate (m3/s)

V oa

Volumetric capacity required for opposed air-flow (m3/s)

V u

Volume of upper layer (m3)

v

Characteristic velocity (m/s)

v e

Opposed airflow velocity (m/s)

w

Width of the balcony opening from the area of origin (m)

x

Position (m)

Y CO

Mass fraction of CO (kg of species CO per kg of smoke)

Y i

Mass fraction of gas species i (kg of species i per kg of smoke)

z

Clear height, position of smoke layer interface above the top of fuel surface (m)

z b

position of smoke layer interface above top of balcony (m)

z f

Limiting height above fuel (m)

z m

Maximum rise of plume (m)

z o

Virtual origin of plume (m)

χ a

Combustion efficiency

χ l

Heat loss fraction from smoke to enclosure

ρ

Density (kg/m3)

F

Full-scale building

m

Small-scale model

o

Ambient air

w

Wall, ceiling, or floor of enclosure

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Milke, J.A. (2016). Smoke Control by Mechanical Exhaust or Natural Venting. In: Hurley, M.J., et al. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2565-0_51

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