Skip to main content

Child Passenger Protection

  • Chapter
Accidental Injury

Abstract

Child restraint systems function in much the same way as occupant protection systems for adults, with a few important differences. For the average child restraint user, the primary difference is the wide variety of systems from which to choose. Children of different ages and sizes require different types of restraints, and, among each type, the way in which they are used can be critical for effective performance. This chapter describes the theory behind the design of restraint systems, relates these principles to the various types of child restraint systems available today, and indicates the circumstances in which children in these restraints may still be injured, particularly when the child restraints are misused. Finally, the issues of child injury potential and biomechanically based injury criteria are addressed, and research needs are identified.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 74.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Injury and Poison Prevention and Committee on Fetus and Newborn. Safe transportation of premature infants. Pediatrics 87: 120–122; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anderson PA, Rivara, FP, Maier RV, Drake C (1991) The epidemiology of seatbelt-associated injuries. J Trauma 31: 60–67.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Appleton I. Young children and adult seat belts: Is it a good idea to put children in adults belts? New Zealand Ministry of Transport, Road Transport Division, Wellington, August 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell R. Misuse test panels, a technique for the identification and prevention of misuse of child restraints. Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, 35th annual conference, 1991 October 7–9, Toronto. AAAM, Des Plaines, IL, pp 43–55, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowler M, Torpey S. An evaluation of the Victorian baby safety bassinet loan scheme. Victoria Road Traffic Authority, Hawthorn, July 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bull MJ, Stroup KB (1985) Premature infants in car seats. Pediatrics 75: 336–339.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burdi AR, Huelke DF, Snyder RG, Lowrey GH (1969) Infants and children in the adult world of automobile safety design: pediatric and anatomical considerations for design of child restraints. J Biomech 2: 267–280.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carlsson G, Norin H, Ysander L. Rearward facing child seats. Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, 33rd conference, 1989 October 2–4, Baltimore, MD. AAAM, Des Plaines, IL, pp 249–263, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conry BG, Hall CM (1987) Cervical spine fracture and rear car seat restraints. Arch Dis Child 62: 1267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corben CW, Herbert DC. Children wearing approved restraints and adult’s belts in crashes. New South Wales, Traffic Accident Research Unit, Sydney, January 1981.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cynecki MJ, Goryl ME. The incidence and factors associated with child safety seat misuse. DOT HS 806–676. Goodell-Grivas, Southfield, MI, December 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  • Czernakowski W, Müller M. Misuse Mode and Effects Analysis (MMEA)—an approach to predict and quantify misuse of child restraint systems (CRS). Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, 35th annual conference, 1991 October 7–9, Toronto. AAAM, Des Plaines, IL, pp 27–43, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dejeammes M, Tarriere C, Thomas C, Kallieris D. Exploration of biomechanical data towards a better evaluation of tolerance for children involved in automotive accidents. SAE 840–530. Advances in belt restraint systems. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, pp 427–440, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diekema DS, Allen DB (1988) Odontoid fracture in a child occupying a child restraint seat. Pediatrics 82: 117–119.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans L (1986) The effectiveness of safety belts in preventing fatalities. Accid Anal Prey 18: 229–241.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fuchs S, Barthel MJ, Flannery AM, Christoffel KK (1989) Cervical spine fractures sustained by young children in forward-facing car seats. Pediatrics 84: 348–354.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Glaeser KP, Langwieder K, Hummel T. Protection effects of child restraints—experience from accidents and sled tests with carry-cots. Road Safety and Traffic Environment in Europe, proceedings, 1990 September 26–28, Gothenburg, Sweden. Vol 1. VTI Report 362A. Swedish Road and Traffic Research Institute, Linkoping, pp 139–149, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gustafsson H, Nygren A, Tingvall C (1987) Children in cars—an epidemiological study of injuries to children as car passengers in road traffic accidents. Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl 339: 11–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heap SA, Grenier EP. The design and development of a more effective child restraint concept. SAE 680002. Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, 1968.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huelke DF, Sherman HW, Murphy M, Kaplan RJ, Flora JD. Effectiveness of current and future restraint systems in fatal and serious injury automobile crashes. SAE 790323. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • International Task Force on Child Restraining Systems. Draft minutes of the meeting; 1990 April 30-May 4; Paris. Renault Automobiles Département des Sciences de l’Environnement, Nanterre, France, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • International Task Force on Child Restraining Systems. Report of the 5th meeting; 1991 April 22–24; Paris. Renault Automobiles Département des Sciences de l’Environnement, Nanterre, France, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Janssen EG, Nieboer JJ, Verschut R, Huijskens CG. Cervical spine loads to retrained child dummies. SAE 912919. 35th Stapp Car Crash Conference, proceedings, 1991 November 18–20, San Diego, CA. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson DL, Falci S (1990) The diagnosis and treatment of pediatric lumbar spine injuries caused by rear seat lap belts. Neurosurgery 26: 434–441.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kahane CJ. An evaluation of child passenger safety-the effectiveness and benefits of safety seats. DOT HS 806 890. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, February 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karlbrink L, Krafft M, Tingvall C. Integrated child restraints in cars for children aged 0–10. 12 th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles, 1989 May 29-June 1, Gothenburg, Sweden. Vol 1. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, pp 73–75, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • King AI. Abdomen. In Melvin JW, Weber K (eds) Review of biomechanical impact response and injury in the automotive environment. DOT HS 807 042. University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute, Ann Arbor, pp 125–146, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langwieder K, Hummel T. Children in cars-their injury risks and the influence of child protection systems. 12th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles, 1989 May 29-June 1, Gothenburg, Sweden. Vol 1. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, pp 39–49, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langwieder K, Hummel T, Felsch B, Klanner W. Injury risks of children in cars-epidemiology and effect of child restraint systems. XXIII FISITA Congress, 1990 May 7–11, Turin, Italy, Vol 1. Associazione Tecnica dell’Automobile, Turin, pp 905–919, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Langwieder K, Hummel T. Neck injuries to restrained children. IRCOBI Workshop on Future in Child Restraints, 1989 September 15, Stockholm. HUK-Verband, Munich, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowne R, Gloyns P, Roy P. Fatal injuries to restrained children aged 0–4 years in Great Britain 1972–86. 11th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles, 1987 May 1215, Washington, DC. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, pp 227235, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melvin JW, Weber K. Abdominal intrusion sensor for evaluating child restraint systems. SAE 860370. Passenger comfort, convenience and safety. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, pp 249–256, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melvin JW, Weber K, Lux P. Performance of child restraints in serious crashes. American Association for Automotive Medicine, 24th conference, 1980 October 7–9, Rochester, NY. AAAM, Morton Grove, IL, pp 117–131, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morres H, Appel H. Paraplegia as result of unsafe child restraints. IRCOBI Workshop on Future in Child Restraints, 1989 September 15, Stockholm. Technical University, Berlin, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Transportation Safety Board. Child passenger protection against death, disability, and disfigurement in motor vehicle accidents. NTSB SS-8301. NTSB, Washington, DC, September 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Transportation Safety Board. Children and lap/shoulder belt use. In Performance of lapl shoulder belts in 167 motor vehicle crashes. Vol 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • NTSB, Washington, DC, pp 63–71, March 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman JA. The restraint of school-age children in automobiles, a literature review. Biokinetics, Ottawa, October 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nyquist GW, King AI. Spine. In Melvin JW, Weber K (eds) Review of biomechanical impact response and injury in the automotive environment. DOT HS 807 042. University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute, Ann Arbor, pp 45–92, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  • Partyka SC. Belt effectiveness in fatal accidents. In Papers on adult seat belts-effectiveness and use. DOT HS 807 285. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, June 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Petrucelli E. Child restraint misuse in the USA: implications for crash protection. IRCOBI Workshop on Future in Child Restraints, 1989 September 15, Stockholm. Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine, Des Plaines, IL, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutledge R, Thomason M, Oller D, Meredith W, Moylan J, Clancy T, Cummingham P, Baker C (1991) The spectrum of abdominal injuries associated with the use of seat belts. J Trauma 31: 820–826.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shelness A, Jewett J. Observed misuse of child restraints. SAE 831665. Child Injury and Restraint Conference, proceedings, 1983 October 17–18, San Diego, CA. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, pp 207–215, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  • Society of Automotive Engineers. Securing child restraint systems in motor vehicle rear seats. SAE J1819. SAE, Warrendale, PA, 11 November 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Society of Automotive Engineers, Child Restraint and Airbag Interaction Task Force. Unconfirmed minutes of the meeting, 1991 April 10, Romulus, MI.

    Google Scholar 

  • States JD, Huelke DF, Dance M, Green RN (1987) Fatal injuries caused by underarm use of shoulder belts. J Trauma 27: 740–745.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stürtz G. Biomechanical data of children. SAE 801313. 24th Stapp Car Crash Conference, proceedings, 1980 October 15–17, Troy, MI. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, pp 513–559, 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarriere C, Carlsson G, Trosseille X. Initial conclusions of an International Task Force on Child Restraining Systems. 13th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles, 1991 November 4–7; Paris. Paper no. 91-S3-W-19. 18p. U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tingvall C (1987) Children in cars-some aspects of the safety of children as car passengers in road traffic accidents. Acta Paediatr Scand Suppl 339: 1–35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turbell T. ISOFIX status report. Swedish Road and Traffic Research Institute, Linkoping, May 1991. (Distributed as ISO/22/12/WG 1 N 220.)

    Google Scholar 

  • Turbell T. Swedish programs for child protection in cars. IRCOBI Workshop on Future in Child Restraints, 1989 September 15, Stockholm. Swedish Road and Traffic Research Institute, Linkoping, 1989. United Kingdom, Department of Transport. Occurrence of neck injuries to children in child restraints. April 1991. (Distributed as ISO/22/12/ WG 1 N 219.)

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber K. Comparison of car-bed and rear-facing infant restraint systems. 12th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles, 1989 May 29-June 1, Gothenburg, Sweden. Vol 1. U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, pp 61–66, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber K, Lehman RJ, Schneider LW. Child anthropometry for restraint system design. UMTRI-85–23. University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute, Ann Arbor, June 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weber K, Melvin JW. Injury potential with misused child restraining systems. SAE 831604. 27th Stapp Car Crash Conference, proceedings, 1983 October 17–19, San Diego, CA. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, pp 53–59, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willet LD, Leuschen MP, Nelson LS, Nelson RM (1986) Risk of hypoventilation in premature infants in car seats. J Pediatr 109: 245–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Selected Child Restraint Regulations and References

  • Australia. Child restraint systems for use in motor vehicles. AS 1754–1989. Standards Australia, North Sydney, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canada. Child restraint systems. CMVSS 213. Transport Canada, Ottawa, October 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  • International Organization for Standardization. Compilation of safety regulations and standards for children in cars. ISO/22/12/WG 1 N 214. SIS/SMS, Stockholm, April 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Kingdom. Rearward facing infant restraint systems. BS AU 202a. British Standards Institution, London, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seat belt assemblies for motor vehicles, Part 2, Specification for restraining devices for children. BS 3254: Part 2. British Standards Institution, London, 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Kingdom. Seat belt booster cushions. BS AU 185. British Standards Institution, London, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations, Economic Commission for Europe. Uniform provisions concerning the approval of restraining devices for child occupants of power-driven vehicles (“child restraint system”). ECE Reg. 44, amended and supplemented as of November 1990. ( Available: Swedish Road and Traffic Research Institute, Linkoping. )

    Google Scholar 

  • United States. Child restraint systems. FMVSS 213. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, DC, September 1992.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1993 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Weber, K. (1993). Child Passenger Protection. In: Nahum, A.M., Melvin, J.W. (eds) Accidental Injury. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-2264-2_19

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-2264-2_19

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4757-2266-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4757-2264-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics