Skip to main content

The Structural Basis of Lung Function

  • Chapter

Part of the book series: People and Ideas ((PEOPL))

Abstract

In the spring of 1966 I moved to Berne, Switzerland, to take over a somewhat rundown department of anatomy at the University of Berne. I inspected the old building that housed, on the upper floor, an enormous collection of skeletons of birds and mammals of all sizes, from shrews to elephants and whales. In this monumental museum I was struck by a small glass showcase that contained a collection of ancient casts of bronchial trees. These were the original preparations of Christoph Theodor Aeby, the raw material on which he had based his monograph “Der Bronchialbaum der Säugethiere and des Menschen” (1), published in 1880. This volume was well known to me because, a few years earlier, I had studied the human bronchial tree extensively. Aeby’s book was the first reference in the bibliography of my Morphometry of Human Lung (1961), not only because I arranged my references alphabetically but because Aeby pioneered the work I had undertaken.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Aeby CH. Thper Bronchialbaum der Säugethiere und des Menschen. Leipzig: Engelmann, 1880.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Bachofen H., M. Bachofen, and E. R. Weibel. Ultrastructural aspects of pulmonary edema. J. Thorac. Imag. 3: 1–7, 1988.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Bachofen H., P. Gehr, and E. R. Weibel. Alterations of mechanical properties and morphology in excised rabbit lungs rinsed with a detergent. J. Appl. Physiol. 47: 1002–1010, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Bachofen H., S. Schürch, R. P. Michel, and E. R. Weibel: Experimental hydrostatic pulmonary edema in rabbit lungs. Morphology. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 147: 989–996, 1993.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Bachofen H., D. Wangensteen, and E. R. Weibel. Surfaces and volumes of alveolar tissue under zone II and zone III conditions. J. Appl. Physiol. 53: 879–885, 1982.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Baddeley A.J., H.J.G. Gundersen, and L.M. Cruz-Orive. Estimation of surface area from vertical sections. J. Miscrosc. 142: 259, 1986.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Bargmann W. Zur vergleichenden Histologie der Lungenalveole. Z. Zellforsch. Mikr. Anat. 23: 335–360, 1935.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Bargmann W., and A. Knoop. Vergleichende elektronenmikroskopische Untersuchungen der Lungenkapillaren. Z. Zellforsch. 44: 263–281, 1956.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Bolender R.P., D. M. Hyde, and R. T. Dehoff. Lung morphometry: a new generation of tools and experiments for organ, tissue, cell, and molecular biology. Am. J. Physiol. 265 (Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 5):L521–L548, 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Chalkley H. W., J. Cornfield, and H. Park. A method for estimating volume surface ratios. Science 110: 295, 1949.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Cruz-Orive L.M. and E.R. Weibel. Sampling designs for stereology. J. Microsc. 122: 235–257, 1981.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Cruz-Orive L. M. and E. R. Weibel. Recent stereological methods for cell biology: a brief survey. Am. J. Physiol. 258(Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 1):L148–L156, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  13. DeHoff R.T. and F.N. Rhines. Determination of number of particles per unit volume from measurements made on random plane sections: the general cylinder and the ellipsoid. Trans. Metall. Soc. AIME 221: 975–982, 1961.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Dempsey J.A., P.G. Hanson, and K. S. Henderson. Exercise-induced arterial hypoxemia in healthy human subjects at sea level. J. Physiol. 355: 161–175, 1984.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Eberth C. J.. Ueber den feineren Bau der Lunge. Z. Wiss. Zool. 12: 1–32, 1862.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Gehr P., M. Bachofen, and E.R. Weibel. The normal human lung: ultrastructure and morphometric estimation of diffusion capacity. Respir. Physiol. 32: 121–140, 1978.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Gil J.and E.R. Weibel: Improvements in demonstration of lining layer of lung alveoli by electron microscopy. Respir. Physiol. 8:13–36, 1969/70.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Gil J., H. Bachofen, P. Gehr, and E. R. Weibel. Alveolar volume-surface area relation in air-and saline-filled lungs fixed by vascular perfusion. J. Appl. Physiol. 47: 990–1001, 1979.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Gomez D.M. Hémodynamique et Angiocinétique. Paris: Hermann, 1941.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Gomez D.M. A physico-mathematical study of lung function in normal subjects and in patients with obstructive pulmonary diseases. Med. Thorac. 22: 275–294, 1965.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Hayek H. v. Die menschliche Lunge. Berlin-Göttingen-Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1953.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Horsfield K. Morphometry of the airways. In: Handbook of Physiology, section 3: The respiratory system, vol. III, Mechanics of breathing, p. 1. Edited by P. Macklem and J. Mead. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1986, p. 77.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Horsfield K. and G. Cumming. Morphology of the bronchial tree in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 24: 373–383, 1968.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Horsfield K., G. Dart, D.E. Olson, G.F. Filley, and G. Cumming. Models of the human bronchial tree. J. Appl. Physiol. 31: 207–217, 1971.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Keller Hj., H.P. Friedli, P. Gehr, M. Bachofen, and E. R. Weibel. The effects of optical resolution on the estimation of stereological parameters. Proc. 4th Int. Congr. Stereology. Gaithersburg, MD, 1975. National Bureau of Standards, Spec. Publ. 431: 409410, 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Kölliker A. Handbuch der Gewebelehre des Menschen für Aerzte und Studierende. Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1852. Further editions: 1855, 1859, 1863, 1867, 1889–96.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Kölliker A. Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen und der höheren Tiere. Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1861.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Kölliker A. Zur Kenntnis des Baues der Lunge des Menschen. Verh. d. phys.-med. Ges. N.F. 16: 1–24, 1881.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Loosli C.G. The rabbit’s lung after phrenectomy and pneumothorax. Anat. Rec. 62: 381–407, 1938.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Low F.N. Electron microscopy of the rat lung. Anat. Rec. 113: 437–443, 1952.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Low F. N. The pulmonary alveolar epithelium of laboratory animals and man. Anat. Rec. 117: 241–263, 1953.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Low F. N. A boundary membrane concept of ultrastructure applicable to the total organism. Proc. 3d European Reg. Conf. on Electron Microscopy, vol B: 115–6, 1964.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Macklin C.C. Pulmonic alveolar epithelium. J. Thorac. Surg. 6: 82–88, 1936.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Malpighi M. Opera Omnia. London: P. Vander, 1687, pp. 320–379.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Mandelbrot B. Form, Chance, and Dimension. New York: Freeman, 1977.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Mandelbrot B. The Fractal Geometry of Nature. New York: Freeman, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Mercer R., J.C. Russel, and J.D. Crapo. Alveolar septal structure in different species. J. Appl. Physiol. 77: 1060–1066, 1994.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Miles R.E. Multidimensional perspectives on stereology. J. Microsc. 95: 181, 1972.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Miles R. E., and P.J. Davy. Precise and general conditions for the validity of a comprehensive set of stereological fundamental formulae. J. Microsc. 107: 211–226, 1976.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Miller W.S. The Lung. Springfield IL: Thomas, 1937.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Neergaard K.v. Neue Auffassungen über einen Grundbegriff der Atemmechanik. Die Retraktionskraft der Lunge, abhängig von der Oberflächenspannung in den Alveolen. Z. Gesamte Exp. Med. 66: 373–394, 1929.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Nelson T.R., B.J. West, and A.L. Goldberger. The fractal lung: universal and species-related scaling patterns. Experientia Basel 46: 251–254, 1990.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. O’Malley C.D. and J.B. de C.M. Saunders: Leonardo da Vinci on the Human Body. New York: H. Schuman, 1952, pp. 388–397.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Palade G.E. A study of fixation for electron microscopy. J. Exp. Med. 95: 285–298, 1952.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Pattle R.E. Properties, function and origin of the alveolar lining layer. Nature 175: 1125 1126, 1955.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Policard A. Les nouvelles idées sur la disposition de la surface respiratoire pulmonaire. Presse Med. 80: 1–20, 1929.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Policard A., A. Collet, and S. Pregermain. Structures alvéolaires normales du poumon examinées au microscope électronique. Ann. Rech. Med. 5: 125–138, 1957.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Policard A., A. Collet, and S. Pregermain. Recherches au microscope électronique sur les cellules pariétales alvéolaires du poumon des mammifères. Z. Zellforsch. 50: 561–587, 1959.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Raabe O.G., H. C. Yeh, G.M. Schum, and R.F. Phalen: Tracheobronchial geometry: human, dog, rat, hamster. Albuquerque NM: Lovelace Foundation, 1976.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Rohrer F. Der Strömungswiderstand in den menschlichen Atemwegen und der Einfluss der unregelmässigen Verzweigung des Bronchialsystems auf den Atmungsverlauf in verschiedenen Lungenbezirken. Arch. Gesamte Physiol. 162: 225–299, 1915.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Roughton F.J. W. and R. E. Forster. Relative importance of diffusion and chemical reaction rates in determining rate of exchange of gases in the human lung, with special reference to true diffusing capacity of pulmonary membrane and volume of blood in the lung capillaries. J. Appl. Physiol. 11: 290–302, 1957.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Saltykov S.A. Stereometric Metallography, 1st Ed. Moscow: State Publishing House for Metals Sciences, 1945.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Sterio D.C. The unbiased estimation of number and sizes of arbitrary particles using the disector. J. Microsc. 134: 127–136, 1984.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Taylor C.R., R.H. Karas, E.R. Weibel, and H. Hoppeler: Adaptive variation in the mammalian respiratory system in relation to energetic demand. Respir. Physiol. 69: 1127, 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Tenney S.M. and J.E. Remmers. Comparative quantitative morphology of the mammalian lung: diffusing area. Nature 197: 54–66, 1963.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Thurlbeck W. M. The internal surface area of non-emphysematous lungs. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 95: 765–773, 1967a.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Thurlbeck W.M. Internal surface area and other measurements of emphysema. Thorax 22: 483–496, 1967b.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Tomkeieff S.I. Linear intercepts, areas and volumes. Nature 155: 24 (corr.p.107), 1945.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Wagner P.D., G.E. Gale, R.E. Moon, J.R. Torre-Bueno, B.W. Stolp, and H.A. Saltzman. Pulmonary gas exchange in humans exercising at sea level and simulated altitude. J. Appl. Physiol. 61: 260–270, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Wagner P.D., J. R. Gillespie, G. L. Landgren, M. R. Fedde, B.W. Jones, R. M. DeBowes, R. L. Pieschl, and H. H. Erickson. Mechanism of exercise-induced hypoxemia in horses. J.Appl. Physiol. 66: 1227–1233, 1989.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Weibel E.R. Morphometry of the Human Lung. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. New York: Academic Press, 1963a.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Weibel E.R. Principles and methods for the morphometric study of the lung and other organs. Lab Invest. 12: 131–155, 1963b.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Weibel E.R. Morphometrics of the lung. In: Handbook of Physiology. Respiration, vol. 1, ch. 7. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1964, pp. 285–307.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Weibel E. R. Morphometric estimation of pulmonary diffusion capacity. I. Model and method. Respir. Physiol. 11:54–75, 1970/71.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Weibel E. R. The mystery of “non-nucleated plates” in the alveolar epithelium of the lung explained. Acta Anat. 78: 425–443, 1971.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Weibel E.R. Stereological Methods. Vol. 1: Practical Methods for Biological Morphometry, vol. 2: Theoretical Foundations. London-New York-Toronto: Academic Press, 1979.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Weibel E.R. The Pathway for Oxygen. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Weibel E.R. Design of microvasculature and gas exchange. In: Cells and Tissues: A Three-Dimensional Approach by Modern Techniques in Microscopy, edited by P. M. Motta, New York: Alan R Liss, 1989, pp. 147–155.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Weibel E. R. Design of airways and blood vessels considered as branching trees. In: The Lung: Scientific Foundations, edited by R.G. Crystal, J.B. West, P.J. Barnes, N.S. Cherniack, and E.R. Weibel. New York: Raven, 1991a, pp. 711–720.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Weibel E.R. Fractal geometry: a design principle for living organisms. Am. J. Physiol. 261 (Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 2): L361 - L369, 1991b.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Weibel E. R. Stereology in perspective: A mature science evolves. Acta Stereo!. 11/suppl I: 1–13, 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Weibel E.R. Design of biological organisms and fractal geometry. In: Fractals in Biology and Medicine, edited by T. Nonnenmacher, G.A. Losa, E.R. Weibel. Basel: Birkhäuser, 1994, pp. 68–85.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  73. Weibel E. R. and H. Bachofen. Structural design of the alveolar septum and fluid exchange. In: Pulmonary Edema, edited by A.P. Fishman and E.M. Renkin. Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 1979, pp. 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Weibel E. R. and J. Gil. Electron microscopic demonstration of an extracellular duplex lining layer of alveoli. Respir. Physiol. 4: 42–57, 1968.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Weibel E.R. and D.M. Gomez. Architecture of the human lung. Science 137: 577–585, 1962a.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Weibel E. R. and D.M. Gomez. A principle for counting tissue structures on random sections. J. Appl. Physiol. 17: 343–348, 1962b.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Weibel E.R. and B.W. Knight. A morphometric study on the thickness of the pulmonary air-blood barrier. J. Cell Biol. 21: 367–384, 1964.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Weibel E. R. and C. R. Taylor. Design of the mammalian respiratory system. Respir. Physiol. 44: 1–164, 1981.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Weibel E. R., C. R. Taylor, and H. Hoppeler. Variations in function and design: Testing symmorphosis in the respiratory system. Respir. Physiol. 87: 235–348, 1992.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. West B.J., V. Barghava, and A. L. Goldberger. Beyond the principle of similitude: renormalization in the bronchial tree. J. Appl. Physiol. 60: 1089–1097, 1986.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Wicksell S.D. The corpuscle problem. A mathematical study of a biometric problem Biometrika 17: 84–99, 1925.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1996 American Physiological Society

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Weibel, E.R. (1996). The Structural Basis of Lung Function. In: West, J.B. (eds) Respiratory Physiology. People and Ideas. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7520-0_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7520-0_1

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-7520-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics