Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Transmission of African Trypanosomiasis: Interactions Among Tsetse Immune System, Symbionts, and Parasites

  • Chapter
Advances in Disease Vector Research

Part of the book series: Advances in Disease Vector Research ((VECTOR,volume 7))

Abstract

The threat posed to man and his domestic livestock by trypanosomiasis in Africa is related almost entirely to the distribution of infected tsetse flies. The natural infection rates of tsetse have long been used by those concerned with epidemiology and control to assess the risk or “challenge” created by the disease. Infection rates are determined by dissection and microscopy of testse; such examinations were (and still are) carried out across the fly belts of Africa—a typical example being the work of Pires et al. (102) who dissected more than 18,000 flies. The following infection rates were recorded for the three major pathogenic trypanosome groups: T. vivax 6%, T. congolense 2%, and no T. brucei infections (102). Jordan (60) brought together the results of field dissections such as these carried out in various parts of Africa between 1964 and 1972 and revealed that low levels of infection were the norm for all three major trypanosome groupings but especially for the brucei group, “mature” (salivary gland) infections of which were rarely seen. Localized “hot spots” were observed occasionally for vivax group infections.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Allsopp, R., 1972, The role of game animals in the maintenance of endemic and enzootic trypanosomiases in the Lambwe Valley, South Nyanza District, Kenya. Bull. Wld Hlth Org. 47:735–746.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Apted, F.I.C., 1970, The epidemiology of Rhodesian sleeping sickness, Mulligan, H.W. (ed): in The African Trypanosomiases George Allen & Unwin/Ministry of Overseas Development, London, pp. 645–660.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Baker, J.R. and Robertson, D.H.H., 1957, An experiment on the infectivity to Glossina morsitans of a strain ofTrypanosoma rhodesiense and of a strain of T. brucei with some observations on the longevity of infected flies, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit, 51:121–134.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Bell, H., 1906, Despatch from Commissioner Hesketh Bell to Secretary of State for the Colonies. Col. Off. Miscell. No. 178. H. M. Stationery Office, London.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Bruce, D., Hamerton, A.E., Bateman, H.R., and Mackie, F.P., 1909, The development of Trypanosoma gambiense in Glossina palpalis, Proc. Roy. Soc. (B), 81:405–414.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Burgdorfer, W. and Brinton, L.P., 1975, Mechanisms of transovarial infection of spotted fever rickettsiae in ticks, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci, 266:61–72.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Bursell, E., 1970, Feeding, Digestion and Excretion, Mulligan, H.W. (ed): in The African Trypanosomiases George Allen & Unwin/Ministry of Overseas Development, London, pp. 305–316.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Bursell, E. and Berridge, M.J., 1962, The penetration of the ectoperitrophic space of tsetse flies in relation to some properties of the rectal fluid, Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol. Jan Meeting. Cited by Freeman in Ref. 34.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Burtt, E., 1946, The sex ratio of infected flies found in transmission-experiments with Glossina morsitans andTrypanosoma rhodesiense, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 40:74–79.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Buxton, P.A., 1955, The Natural History of Tsetse Flies, London, H.K. Lewis & Co. Ltd., 816 p.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Castellani, O., Ribeiro, L.V., and Fernandez, J.F., 1967. Differentiation of Trypanosoma cruzi in culture, J. Parasitol. 14:447–450.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Chapman, R.F., 1969, The Insects Structure and Function, London, The English Universities Press, 819 p.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Collins, F.H., Sakai, R.K., Vernick, K.D., Paskewitz, S., Seeley, D.C., Miller, L.H., Collins, W.E., Campbell, C.C., and Gwadz, R.W. 1986, Genetic selection of a Plasmodium-refractory strain of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae, Science 234:607–610.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Croft, S.L., East, J.S., and Molyneux, D.H., 1982, Anti-trypanosomal factor in the haemolymph of Glossina, Acta Trop. (Basel) 39:293–302.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Cunningham, I., Honigberg, B.M., and Taylor, A.M., 1981, Infectivity of monomorphic and pleomorphicTrypanosoma brucei stocks cultivated at 28°C with various tsetse fly tissues, J. Parasitol. 67:391–397.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Curtis, C.F. and Langley, P.A., 1972, Use of nitrogen and chilling in the production of radiation-induced sterility in the tsetse flyGlossina Morsitans, Ent. Exp. & Appl. 15:360–376.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Dipeolu, O.O. and Adam, K.M.G., 1974, On the use of membrane feeding to study the development of Trypanosoma brucei in Glossina, Acta Trop. (Basel). 31:185–200.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Distelmans, W., D’Haeseleer, F., Kaufman, L., and Rousseuw, P., 1982, The susceptibility of Glossina palpalis palpalis at different ages to infection with Trypanosoma congolense, Ann. Soc. Beige Med. Trop. 62:41–47.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Distelmans, W., Makumyariri, A.M., D’Haeseleer, F.D., Claes, Y., LeRay, D., and Gooding, R.H., 1985, Influence of the salmon mutant of Glossina morsitans morsitans on the susceptibility to infection with Trypanosoma congolense, Acta Trop. (Basel). 42:143–148.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Duke, H.L., 1930, On the occurrence in man of strains of T. gambiense non-transmissible cyclically by G. palpalis, Parasitology 22:490–504.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Duke, H.L., 1933, Studies on the factors that may influence the transmission of the polymorphic trypanosomes by tsetse. I. A review of existing knowledge on this subject, with some general observations, Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 27:99–118.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Duke, H.L., 1933, Studies on the factors that may influence the transmission of the polymorphic trypanosomes by tsetse. III. Glossina morsitans versus Glossina palpalis as a transmitter of the polymorphic group of trypanosomes, Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 27:123–130.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Duke, H.L., 1933, Studies on the factors that may influence the transmission of the polymorphic trypanosomes by tsetse. VII. T. rhodesiense versus T. gambiense: A comparison of their power to develop cyclically in Glossina, Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 27:569–584.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Duke, H.L., 1935, Studies on the factors that may influence the transmission of the polymorphic trypanosomes by tsetse. IX. On the infectivity to Glossina of the trypanosome in the blood of the mammal, Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 29:131–143.

    Google Scholar 

  25. East, J., Molyneux, D.H., Maudlin, I., and Dukes, P. 1983, Effect of Glossina haemolymph on salivarian trypanosomesin vitro, Ann. trop. Med. Parasit. 77:97–99.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Ellis, D.S. and Evans, D.A., 1977, Passage ofTrypanosoma brucei rhodesiense through the peritrophic membrane of Glossina morsitans morsitans, Nature 267:834–835.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Evans, D.A. and Ellis, D.S., 1975, Penetration of mid-gut cells of Glossina morsitans morsitans by Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, Nature 258:231–233.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Fairburn, H., 1948, Sleeping sickness in Tanganyika territory, 1922–1946, Trop. Dis. Bull 45:1–17.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Fairburn, H., 1958, The penetration of Trypanosoma rhodesiense through the peritrophic membrane of Glossina palpalis, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 52:18–19.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Fairbairn, H. and Culwick, A.T., 1950, The transmission of the polymorphic trypanosomes, Acta. Trop. (Basel). 7:19–47.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Fairburn, H. and Watson, H.J.C., 1955, The transmission of Trypanosoma vivax by Glossina palpalis. Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 49:250–259.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Fine, P.E.M., 1975, Vectors and vertical transmission an epidemiologic perspective, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 226:173–194.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Ford, J. and Leggate, B.M., 1961, The geographical and climatic distribution of trypanosome infection rates in G. morsitans group of tsetse flies (Glossina Wied., Diptera), Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 55:383–397.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Freeman, J.C., 1973, The penetration of the peritrophic membrane of the tsetse flies by trypanosomes, Acta Trop. (Basel) 30:347–354.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Gibson, W.C., Marshall, T.F. de C., and Godfrey, D.G., 1980, Numerical analysis of enzyme polymorphism: A new approach to the epidemiology and taxonomy of trypanosomes of the subgenus Trypanozoon, Adv. Parasitol. 18:175–246.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Gingrich, J.B., Ward, R.A., Macken, L.M., and Esser, K.M., 1982, African sleeping sickness: new evidence that mature tsetse flies (Glossina morsitans) can become potent vectors, Trans. R. Soc. trop. Med. Hyg. 76:479–481.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Gingrich, J.B., Ward, R.A., Macken, L.M., and Schoenbechler, M.J., 1982, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (Trypanosomatidae): factors influencing infection rates of a recent human isolate in the tsetse Glossina morsitans (Diptera: Glossinidae), J. Med. Entomol. 19:268–274.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Goldstein, I.J. and Poretz, R.D., 1986, Isolation, physicochemical characterization and carbohydrate-binding specificity of lectins, Liener, I.E. Sharon, N. and Goldstein, I.J. (ed): in The Lectins Academic Press, Orlando, pp. 35–247.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Gooding, R.H., 1988, Infection of post-teneral tsetse flies (Glossina morsitans morsitans and Glossina morsitans centralis) with Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Can. J. Zool. 66:1289–1292.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Gotz, P., 1986, Mechanisms of encapsulation in dipteran hosts. Lackie, A.M. (ed): in Immune mechanisms in invertebrate vectors, Symp. Zool. Soc. Lond. pp. 1–20. Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Gray, M.A., Ross, C.A., Taylor, A.M. Tetley, L., and Luckins, A. G., 1985, In vitro cultivation of Trypanosoma congolense: the production of infective forms from metacyclic trypanosomes cultured on bovine aorta endothelial monolayers, Acta trop. (Basel) 42:99–110.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Ham, P.J., Zulu, M.B., and Zahedi, M., 1988, In vitro haemagglutination and attenuation of microfilarial motility by haemolymph from individual black-flies(Simulium ornatum) infected with Onchocerca lienalis, Med. Vet. Entomol. 2:7–18.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Harley, J.M.B., 1966, Studies on age and trypanosome infection rate in females of Glossina pallidipes Aust, G. palpalis fuscipes Newst and G. brevipalpis Newst in Uganda, Bull. Ent. Res. 57:23–37.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Harley, J.M.B., 1967, Further studies on age and trypanosome infection rates in Glossina pallidipes Aust, G. palpalis fuscipes Newst and G. brevipalpis Newst in Uganda, Bull. Ent. Res. 57:459–477.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Harley, J.M.B., 1971, The influence of the age of the fly at the time of the infecting feed on infection of Glossina fuscipes with Trypanosoma rhodesiense, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 65:191–196.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Harley, J.M.B., 1971, Comparison of the susceptibility to infection with Trypanosoma rhodesiense of Glossina pallidipes, G. morsitans, G. fuscipes andG. brevipalpis, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 65:185–189.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Harley, J.M.B. and Wilson, A.J., 1968, Comparison betweenGlossina morsitans, G. pallidipes and G. fuscipes as vectors of trypanosomes of the Trypanosoma congolense group, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 62:178–187.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Harmsen, R., 1973. The nature of the establishment barrier forTrypanosoma brucei in the gut of Glossina pallidipes, Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 67:364–373.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Hoare, C.A., 1931, The peritrophic membrane of Glossina and its bearing on the life cycle of Trypanosoma grayi, Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 25:57–64.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Hoare, C. A., 1972. The trypanosomes of mammals Oxford, Blackwell, pp. 35–47.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Ibrahim, E.A.R., Ingram, G.A., and Molyneux, D.H., 1984, Haemagglutinins and parasite agglutinins in haemolymph and gut of Glossina, Tropenmed. Parasit. 35:151–156.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Ingram, G.A. and Molyneux, D.H., 1988, Sugar specificities of anti-human ABO (H) blood group erythrocyte agglutinins (lectins) and haemolytic activity in the haemolymph and gut extracts of threeGlossina species, Insect Biochem. 18:269–279.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Isola, de E.L., Lammel, E.M., and Gonzalez Cappa, S.M., 1983, Influencia de la hemolinfa de Triatoma infestans en la morfogénesis del Trypanosoma cruzi, Rev. Argentina de Microbiología. 15:181–185.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Isola, de E.L., Lammel, E.M., and Gonzalez Cappa, S.M., 1986, Trypanosoma cruzi: Differentiation after interaction of epimastigotes and Triatoma infestans intestinal homogenate, Exptl. Parasitol. 62:329–335.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Isola, de E.L., Lammel, E.M., Katzin, V.J., and Gonzalez Cappa, S.M., 1981, Influence of organ extracts of Triatoma infestans on differentiation of Trypanosoma cruzi, J. Parasitol. 67:53–58.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Jackson, P.R. and Diggs, C.L., 1983, Trypanosoma rhodesiense bloodstream trypomastigotes and culture procyclic cell surface carbohydrates, J. Protozool. 30:662–668.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Jackson, P.R., Honigberg, B.M., and Holt, S.C., 1978, Lectin analysis of Trypanosoma congolense bloodstream trypomastigote and culture procyclic surface saccharides by agglutination and electron microscopic technics, J. Protozool. 25:471–481.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Jenni, L., 1977, Comparisons of antigenic types of Trypanosoma (T.) brucei strains transmitted by Glossina m. morsitans, Acta Trop. (Basel) 34:35–41.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Jordan, A.M., 1965, The hosts of Glossina as the main factor affecting trypanosome infection rates of tsetse flies in Nigeria, Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 59:423–431.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Jordan, A.M., 1974, Recent developments in the ecology and methods of control of tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) (Dipt., Glossinidae)—A review, Bull. Ent. Res. 63:361–399.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Jordan, A.M., 1976, Tsetse flies as vectors of trypanosomes, Veterinary Parasitology. 2:143–152.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Jordan, A.M. and Trewern, M.A., 1976, Sulphaquinoxaline in host diet as the cause of reproductive abnormalities in the tsetse fly (Glossina spp), Ent. Exp. & Appl. 19:115–129.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Kaaya, G.P. and Darji, N., 1988, The humoral defence system in tsetse: Differences in response due to age, sex and antigen types, Devel. Comp. Immunol. 12:255–268.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Kaaya, G.P., Ratcliffe, N.A., and Alemu, P., 1986, Cellular and humoral defenses of Glossina (Diptera: Glossinidae): reactions against bacteria, trypanosomes, and experimental implants, J. Med. Entomol. 23:30–43.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Kaaya, G.P., Otieno, L.H., Darji, N., and Alemu, P. 1986, Defence reactions of Glossina morsitans morsitans against different species of bacteria and Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Acta Trop. (Basel). 43:31–42.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Kaminsky, R., Beaudoin, E., and Cunningham, I., 1988, Cultivation of the life cycle stages of Trypanosoma brucei spp, Acta Trop. (Basel). 45:33–43.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Katzin, A.M. and Colli, W., 1983, Lectin receptors in Trypanosoma cruzi an N-acetyl-D-glucosamine-containing surface glycoprotein specific for the trypomastigote stage, Biochim. et Biophys. Acta. 727:404–411.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Lackie, A.M., 1988, Immune mechanisms in insects, Parasitology Today 4:98–105.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Langley, P.A., Hall, M.J.R., Felton, T., and Ceesay, M., 1988, Determining the age of tsetse flies, Glossina spp. (Diptera: Glossinidae): an appraisal of the pteridine fluorescence technique, Bull. ent. Res. 78:387–395.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Lehane, M.J., 1976, Formation and histochemical structure of the peritrophic membrane in the stablefly, Stomoxys calcitrans, J. Insect Physiol. 22:1551–1557.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Lehane, M.J. and Mail, T.S., 1985, Determining the age of male and female Glossina morsitans morsitans using a new technique, Ecol. Entomol. 10:219–224.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Lloyd, LI. and Johnson, W.B., 1924, The trypanosome infections of tsetse flies in Northern Nigeria and a new method of estimation, Bull. Ent. Res. 14:265–288.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Lloyd, LI. et al., 1924, Second report of the tsetse fly investigation in the Northern Provinces of Nigeria, Bull. Ent. Res. 15:127.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Makumyaviri, A.M. et al., 1984, Caracterisation de la capacité vectorielle de Glossina morsitans morsitans (Diptera: Glossinidae) vis-a-vis de Trypanosoma brucei brucei EATRO 1125 (AnTAR 1), Ann. Soc. Belge Med. Trop. 64:365–372.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Makumyaviri, A.M. et al., 1984, Capacite vectorielle du type sauvage et du mutant salmon de Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood, 1850 (Diptera: Glossinidae) dans la transmission de Trypanosoma brucei Plimmer et Bradford, 1899, Cah. O.R.S.T.O.M., ser. Ent. med. et Parasitol. 22:283–288

    Google Scholar 

  76. Maudlin, I., 1982, Inheritance of susceptibility to Trypanosoma congolense infection in Glossina morsitans, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 76:225–227.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Maudlin, I. and Ellis, D.S., 1985, Association between intracellular rickettsial-like infections of midgut cells and susceptibility to trypanosome infection in Glossina spp, Z Parasitenkd. 71:683–687.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Maudlin, I. and Dukes, P., 1985, Extrachromosomal inheritance of susceptibility to trypanosome infection in tsetse flies 1. Selection of susceptible and refractory lines of Glossina morsitans morsitans, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 79:317–324.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Maudlin, I. and Welburn, S.C., 1987, Lectin mediated establishment of midgut infections of Trypanosoma congolense andTrypanosoma brucei in Glossina morsitans, Trop. Med. Parasit. 38:167–170.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Maudlin, I. and Welburn, S.C., 1988, The role of lectins and trypanosome genotype in the maturation of midgut infections inGlossina morsitans, Trop. Med. Parasit. 39:56–58.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Maudlin, I. and Welburn, S.C., 1988, Tsetse immunity and the transmission of trypanosomiasis, Parasitology Today. 4:109–111.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Maudlin, I. and Welburn, S.C., 1989, A single trypanosome is sufficient to infect a tsetse fly, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 83:432–433.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Maudlin, I., Welburn, S.C., and Milligan, P., Salivary gland infection: a sex-linked recessive character in tsetse? Acta trap. (Basel) In Press.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Maudlin, I., Kabayo, J.P., Flood, M.E.T., and Evans, D.A., 1984, Serum factors and the maturation ofTrypanosoma congolense infections in Glossina morsitans, Z Parasitenkd. 70:11–19.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Maudlin, I., Dukes, P., Luckins, A.G., and Hudson, K.M., 1986, Extrachromosomal inheritance of susceptibility to trypanosome infection in tsetse flies. II. Susceptibility of selected lines of Glossina morsitans morsitans to different stocks and species of trypanosome, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 80:97–105.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Mews, A.R., Langley, P.A., Pimley, R.W., and Flood, M.E.T., 1977, Large scale rearing of tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) in the absence of a living host, Bull. Ent. Res. 67:119–128.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Moloo, S.K., 1981, Effects of maintaining Glossina morsitans morsitans on different hosts upon the vector’s subsequent infection rates with pathogenic trypanosomes, Acta Trop. (Basel). 38:125–136.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Moloo, S.K. and Kutuza, S.B., 1985, Survival and reproductive performance of female Glossina morsitans morsitans when maintained on livestock infected with Salivarían trypanosomes, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 79:223–224.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Moloo, S.K. and Kutuza, S.B., 1988, Comparative study on the infection rates of different laboratory strains of Glossina species by Trypanosoma congolense, Med. Vet. Entomol. 2:253–257.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Moloo, S.K. and Shaw, M.K., 1989, Rickettsial infections of midgut cells are not associated with susceptibility ofGlossina morsitans centralis to Trypanosoma congolense infection. Acta Trop. (Basel) 46:223–227.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Moloo, S.K., Kutuza, S.B., and Desai, J., 1987, Comparative study on the infection rates of different Glossina species for East and West African Trypanosoma vivax stocks, Parasitology. 95:537–542.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Moloo, S.K., Kutuza, S.B., and Desai, J., 1988, Infection rates in sterile males ofmorsitans, palpalis and fusca groups Glossina for pathogenic Trypanosoma species from East and West Africa, Acta Trop. (Basel). 45:145–152.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Molyneux, D.H., 1977, Vector relationships in the Trypanosomatidae, Adv. Parasitol. 15:1–82.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Mutharia, L.M. and Pearson, T.W., 1987, Surface carbohydrates of procyclic forms of African trypanosomes studied using fluorescence activated cell sorter analysis and agglutination with lectins, Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 23:165–172.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Mwangelwa, M.I., Otieno, L.H., and Reid, G.D.F., 1987, Some barriers to Trypanosoma congolense development in Glossina morsitans morsitans, Insect Sci. Applic. 8:33–37.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Nitcheman, S., 1988, Comparaison des longevites des glossines (Glossina morsitans morsitans Westwood, 1850) infectees par les trypanosomes (Trypanosoma nannomonas congolense Broden, 1904) et des glossines saines, Ann. Parasitol. Hum. Comp. 63:163–164.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Otieno, L.H., Darji, N., Onyango, P., and Mpanga, E., 1983, Some observations on factors associated with the development of Trypanosoma brucei brucei infections inGlossina morsitans morsitans, Acta Trop. (Basel). 40:113–120.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Page, W.A., 1972, The infection of Glossina morsitans Weid. byTrypanosoma brucei in relation to the parasitaemia in the mouse host, Trop. Anim. Hlth Prod. 4:41–48.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Pell, P.E. and Southern, D.I., 1976, Effect of the coccidiostat, sulphaquinoxaline on symbiosis in the tsetse fly, Glossina species, Microbios Lett. 2:203–211.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Pereira, M.E.A., Andrade, A.F.B., and Ribeiro, J.M.C., 1981, Lectins of distinct specificity in Rhodnius prolixus interact selectively with Trypanosoma cruzi, Science 211:597–600.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Pereira, M.E.A., Loures, M.A., Villalta, F., and Andrade, A.F.B., 1980, Lectin receptors as markers forTrypanosoma cruzi developmental stages and a study of the interaction of wheat germ agglutinin with sialic acid residues on epimastigote cells, J. Exp. Med. 152:1375–1392.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Phelps, R.J. and Vale, G.A., 1978, Studies on populations of Glossina morsitans morsitans and G. pallidipes (Diptera: Glossinidae) in Rhodesia, J. Appl. Ecol. 15:743–760.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Pires, F.A., Da Silva, J.M., and Teles E Cunha, G., 1950, Posicao actual da tse-tse na area da Sitatonga circunscricao do Mossurize. Estudo comparitivo da infestacao por tripanossomas patogenicos nas G. morsitans, G. pallidipes, G. brevipalpis e G. austeni, Mocambique 62:1–59.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Rener, J., Carter, R., Rosenberg, Y., and Miller, L.H., 1980, Anti-gamete monoclonal antibodies synergistically block transmission of malaria by preventing fertilization in the mosquito, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 77:6797–6799.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Renwrantz, L. and Schottelius, J., 1977, Charakterisierung der oberflache von trypanosoma brucei EATRO 427 mit Lektinen, Protektinen and Blutgruppen-Antiseren, Z Parasitenk. 54:139–147.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Richner, D., Brun, R., and Jenni, L., 1988, Production of metacyclic forms by cyclical transmission of West African Trypanosoma (T.) brucei isolates from man and animals, Acta Trop. (Basel). 45:309–319.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Robertson, M., 1913, Notes on the life history of Trypanosoma gambiense, with a brief reference to the cycles of Trypanosoma nanum andTrypanosoma pecorum in Glossina palpalis, Philos. Trans. B. 203:161–184.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Ross, C.A., 1987, Trypanosoma congolense: differentiation to metacyclic trypanosomes in culture depends on the concentration of glutamine or proline, Acta Trop. (Basel). 44:293–301.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Ruddall, K.M., 1963, The chitin/protein complexes of insect cuticles, Adv. Insect Physiol. 1:257–314.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Ryan, L., Kupper, W., Croft, S.L., Molyneux, D.M., and Clair, M., 1982, Differences in rates of acquisition of trypanosome infections between Glossina species in the field, Ann. Soc. Beige Med. Trop. 62:291–300.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Saunders, D.S., 1962, Age determination for female tsetse flies and the age composition of samples of Glossina pallidipes Aust., G. palpalis fuscipes Newst. and G. brevipalpis Newst, Bull. Ent. Res. 53:579–595.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Tarimo, S.A., Golder, T.K., Dransfield, R.D., Chaudhury, M.F.B., and Brightwell, R. 1985, Preliminary observations on trypanosome infection rates in Glossina pallidipes and the factors affecting them at Ngruman, Kenya. International Scientific Council for Trypanosomiasis Research and Control. 18th Meeting, Harare (Zimbabwe) pp 276–283. Publication No. 113 O.A.U./S.T.R.C.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Turner, C.M.R., Barry, J.D., and Vickerman, K, 1988, Loss of variable antigen during transformation of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense from bloodstream to procyclic forms in the tsetse fly, Parasitology Research 74:507–511.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. van Hoof, L.M.J.J., 1947, Observations on trypanosomiasis in the belgian congo, Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 40:728–761.

    Google Scholar 

  115. van Hoof, L.M.J.J., Henrard, C., and Peel, E., 1937, Influences modificatrices de la transmissibilite cyclique du Trypanosoma gambiense par Glossina palpalis, Ann. Soc. Beige. Med. Trop. 17:385–440.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Vickerman, K, 1965, Polymorphism and mitochondrial activity in sleeping sickness trypanosomes, Nature 208:762–766.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Vickerman, K., 1985, Developmental cycles and biology of pathogenic trypanosomes, Brit. Med. Bull. 41:105–114.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Wallbanks, K.R., Ingram, G.A., and Molyneux, D.H., 1986, The agglutination of erythrocytes and Leishmania parasites by sandfly gut extracts: evidence for lectin activity, Trop. Med. Parasit. 37:409–413.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Weitz, B., 1963, The feeding habits of Glossina, Bull. Wld Hlth Org. 28:711–729.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Welburn, S.C. and Gibson, W.C., 1989, Cloning of a repetitive DNA from the Rickettsia-like organisms of tsetse flies (Glossina spp.), Parasitology 98:81–84.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Welburn, S.C. and Maudlin, I., 1989, Lectin signalling of maturation of T. congolense infections in tsetse, Med. Vet. Entomol. 3:141–145.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Welburn, S.C. and Maudlin, I., 1990, Haemolymph lectin and the maturation of trypanosome infections in tsetse, Med. Vet. Entomol. 4:43–48.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Welburn, S.C., Maudlin, I., and Ellis, D.S., 1987, In vitro cultivation of rickettsia-like-organisms from Glossina spp., Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 81:331–335.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Welburn, S.C., Maudlin, I., and Ellis, D.S., 1989, Rate of trypanosome killing by lectins in midguts of different species and strains of Glossina, Med. Vet. Entomol. 3:77–82.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Wigglesworth, V.B., 1929, Digestion in the tsetse-fly: A study of structure and function, Parasitology. 21:288–321.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Wigglesworth, V.B., 1972, The Principles of Insect Physiology, 7th ed. London, Chapman and Hall, 827 p.

    Google Scholar 

  127. Wijers, D.J.B., 1958, Factors that may influence the infection rate of Glossina palpalis with Trypanosoma gambiense 1. The age of the fly at the time of the infected feed, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 52:385–390.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Wijers, D.J.B, and Willett, K.C., 1960, Factors that may influence the infection rate of Glossina palpalis with Trypanosoma gambiense II. The number and the morphology of the trypanosomes present in the blood of the host at the time of the infected feed, Ann. Trop. Med. Parasit. 54:341–350.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Willett, K.C., 1966, Development of the peritrophic membrane in Glossina (tsetse flies) and its relation to infection with trypanosomes, Expl Parasit. 18:290–295.

    Google Scholar 

  130. Yen, J.H., 1975, Transovarial transmission of Rickettsia-like microorganisms in mosquitoes, Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 266:152–161.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Yorke, W., Murgatroyd, F., and Hawking, F., 1933, The relation of polymorphic trypanosomes, developing in the gut of Glossina, to the peritrophic membrane, Ann. Trop Med. Parasit. 27:347–350.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Tsetse Research Laboratory, ODA/University of Bristol, BS18 7DU, Langford, Bristol, UK

    Ian Maudlin

Authors
  1. Ian Maudlin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Virus-Vector Laboratory, Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, 77843, College Station, Texas, USA

    Kerry F. Harris

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1991 Springer-Verlag New York Inc.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Maudlin, I. (1991). Transmission of African Trypanosomiasis: Interactions Among Tsetse Immune System, Symbionts, and Parasites. In: Harris, K.F. (eds) Advances in Disease Vector Research. Advances in Disease Vector Research, vol 7. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9044-2_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4613-9044-2_6

  • Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-9046-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4613-9044-2

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation