Abstract
It seems logical that pregnancy has an energy cost greater than the non-pregnant state. Energy is required for deposition as the products of conception, the energy cost of maintenance of the new tissues and energy deposited in maternal fat stores during pregnancy. Energy consumption in pregnancy may be reduced by alterations in patterns of exercise but national and international authorities have advised pregnant and lactating women to increase their energy intakes to meet the demands of reproduction.(1,2) For pregnancy these recommendations derive from the theoretical calculations of Hytten and Leitch,(3) which were that an additional 80 000 Kcal are required on average. Advice on the qualitative aspects of diet in pregnancy is usually limited to general comments on proportions of carbohydrate and protein to be selected.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
FAO/WHO. Energy and Protein Requirements. WHO Tech Rep Ser. No. 522. Geneva: WHO, 1973.
DHSS. Recommended daily amounts of food energy and nutrients for groups of people in the United Kingdom. Report on Health and Sound Subjects No.15. London: HMSO, 1979.
Hytten FE, Leitch I. The Physiology of Human Pregnancy. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1971: pp.411–412.
Durnin JV, McKillop FM, Grant S, Fitzgerald G. Is nutritional status endangered by virtually no extra intake during pregnancy? Lancet 1985; ii: 823–825.
Durnin JV, McKillop FM, Grant S, Fitzgerald G. Energy requirements of pregnancy in Scotland. Lancet 1987; ii: 897–900.
van Raaij JMA, Vermaat-Miedema SH, Schonk CM, Peek MEM, Hautvast JGAJ. Energy requirements of pregnancy in the Netherlands. Lancet 1987; ii: 953–955.
Lawrence M, Lawrence F, Coward WA, Cole TJ, Whitehead RG. Energy requirements of pregnancy in The Gambia. Lancet 1987; ii: 1072–1076.
Throngprasert K, Tanphaichitre V, Valyasevi A, Kittigool J, Durnin JVGA. Energy requirements of pregnancy in rural Thailand. Lancet 1987; ii: 1010–1012.
Tuazon MAG, van Raaij JMA, Hautvast JGAJ, Barba CVC. Energy requirements of pregnancy in the Philippines. Lancet 1987; ii: 1129–1131.
Forsum E, Sadurskis A, Wager J. Resting metabolic rate and body composition of healthy Swedish women during pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr 1988; 47: 942–947.
Prentice AM, Goldberg GR, Murgatroyd PR, Davies HL, Scott W. Energy sparing adaptations in human pregnancy assessed by whole-body calorimetry. Br J Nutr; In press.
Illingworth PJ, Jung RT, Howie PW, Isles TE. Reduction in postprandial energy expenditure during pregnancy. Br Med J 1987; 294: 1573–1576.
Davies HL, Prentice AM, Coward WA, Goldberg GR, Black AE, Murgatroyd PR, Scott W, Ashford J, Sawyer M. Individual variation in the energy cost of pregnancy. Doubly labelled water method. Proc Nutr Soc 1988; 47: 47–45A.
Fritz IB. Insulin Action. New York: Academic Press, 1972.
Freinkel N, Metzger BE. Pregnancy as a tissue culture experience: the critical implications of maternal metabolism for fetal development. In: Pregnancy Metabolism, Diabetes and the Fetus. Eds. K Elliot, M O’Connor. Ciba Foundation Symposium 63 (new series). Amsterdam: Exerpta Medica, 1979.
McDonald-Gibson RG, Young M, Hytten FE. Changes in plasma non-esterified fatty acids and serum gycerol in pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1975; 82: 460–466.
Lind T, Aspillaga M. Metabolic changes during normal and diabetic pregnancy. In: Diabetes Mellitus in Pregnancy. Eds. EA Reece, Dr Coustan. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1988: pp.71–102.
Lind T, Billewicz WZ, Brown G. A serial study of changes occurring in the oral glucose tolerance test during pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw 1973; 80: 1033–1039.
Cousins L, Rigg L, Hollingsworth D, Brink G, Auran J, Yen SS. The 24-hour excursion and diurnal rhythm of glucose, insulin, and C-peptide in normal pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1980; 136: 483–487.
Phelps RL, Metzger BE, Frienkel N. Carbohydrate metabolism in pregnancy. XVIII. Diurnal profiles of plasma glucose, insulin, free fatty acids, triglycerides, cholesterol, and individual amino acids in late normal pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1981; 140: 730–736.
Metzger BE, Ravnikar V, Vileisis RA, Freinkel N. ‘Accelerated starvation’ and the skipped breakfast in late normal pregnancy. Lancet 1982; i: 588–592.
Kühl C, Hornnes PJ, Andersen O. Etiology and pathophysiology of gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes 1985; 34 Suppl 2: 66–70.
Ryan EA, O’Sullivan MJ, Skyler JS. Insulin action during pregnancy: Studies with the euglycaemia clamp technique. Diabetes 1985; 34: 380–389.
Gillmer MDG, Beard RW, Brooke FM, Oakley NW. Carboydrate metabolism in pregnancy. Part 1. Diurnal plasma glucose profile in normal and diabetic women. Br Med J 1975; iii: 399–404.
Gillmer MDG, Persson B. Metabolism during normal and diabetic pregnancy and its effect on neonatal outcome. In: Pregnancy Metabolism, Diabetes and the Fetus. Eds. K. Elliott, M O’Connor. Ciba Foundation Symposium 63 (new series). Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1979: pp. 93–126.
Fraser RB, Ford FA, Milner RDG. A controlled trial of a high dietary fibre intake in pregnancy — effects on plasma glucose and insulin levels. Diabetologia 1983; 25: 238–241.
Fraser RB. High fibre diets in pregnancy. In: Nutrition in Pregnancy. Eds. DM Campbell, MDG Gillmer. London: Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, 1983: pp.269–277.
Freinkel N, Phelps RL, Metzger BE. Intermediary metabolism during normal pregnancy. In: Carbohydrate Metabolism in Pregnancy and the Newborn 1978. Eds. HW Sutherland, JM Stowers. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1979: pp.1–31.
Fraser RB, Ford FA, Lawrence GF. Insulin sensitivity in third trimester pregnancy. A randomized study of dietary effects. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1988; 95: 223–229.
Hytten FE. Placental transfer. In: Clinical Physiology in Obstetrics. Eds. FE Hytten, G Chamberlain. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1980: pp.468–492.
Hull D, Elphick MC. Evidence for fatty acid transfer across the human placenta. In: Pregnancy Metabolism, Diabetes and the Fetus. Eds. K. Elliott, M O’Connor. Ciba Foundation Symposium 63 (new series). Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1979: pp.75–91.
Adam PAJ, Räiha N, Rahiala EL, Kemomäki M. Oxidation of glucose and DB-OH Butyrate by the early human fetal brain. Acta Paediatr Scand 1975; 64: 17–24.
Patel MS, Johnson CA, Rajan R, Own OE. The metabolism of ketone bodies in developing human brain: development of ketone-body-utilising enzymes and ketone bodies as precursors for lipid synthesis. J Neurochem 1975; 25: 905–908.
Churchill JA, Berendes HW, Nemore J. Neuropsychological deficits in children of diabetic mothers. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1969; 105: 257–268.
Churchill JA, Berendes HW. Intelligence of children whose mothers had acetonuria during pregnancy. In: Perinatal Factors Affecting Human Development. Washington DC: Pan American Health Organisation, 1969. Scientific Publication M185: pp.30–35.
Naeye RL, Chez RA. Effects of maternal acetonuria and low pregnancy weight gain on children’s psychomotor development. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1981; 139: 189–193.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1989 The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists
About this paper
Cite this paper
Fraser, R.B., Ford, F.A. (1989). Maternal diet and fetal substrate provision. In: Sharp, F., Fraser, R.B., Milner, R.D.B. (eds) Fetal Growth. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-1707-0_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-1707-0_10
Publisher Name: Springer, London
Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-1709-4
Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-1707-0
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive