Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Vitamin D: Cardiovascular Function and Disease

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Vitamin D and Cancer

Abstract

Opinions about the effect of vitamin D on risk of cardiovascular disease have changed substantially over the last half century. During the 1950s and 1970s, the dominant view was that vitamin D was a cause of cardiovascular disease. During the 1980s and 1990s, an increasing number of studies showed benefits from vitamin D, challenging earlier opinions that vitamin D was harmful. During the first decade of this century, the weight of scientific opinion has shifted 180° from that of 50 years ago, and the prevailing focus of research is on identifying the potential beneficial effects of vitamin D against cardiovascular disease. Since 2003, large epidemiological studies of hemodialysis patients and general population samples have shown inverse associations between vitamin D and cardiovascular disease. A growing body of laboratory and clinical research has identified several possible mechanisms to explain this association. These include adverse effects of vitamin D deficiency on immune and inflammatory processes, endothelial function, matrix-metalloproteinases and insulin resistance, which result in cardiac hypertrophy, thickened arteries, increased plaque formation, and rupture and thrombosis. Large randomized trials are required to determine with certainty whether vitamin D ­protects against cardiovascular disease.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Abbreviations

CI:

Confidence interval

CRP:

C-reactive protein

CV:

Cardiovascular

1,25(OH)2D:

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D

25OHD:

25-Hydroxyvitamin D

IL:

Interleukin

MMP:

Matrix-metallo-protease

NHANES:

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

PTH:

Parathyroid hormone

TNF:

Tumor necrosis factor

UV:

Ultraviolet

References

  1. Fraser D (1967) The relation between infantile hypercalcemia and vitamin D–public health implications in North America. Pediatrics 40:1050–1061

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Friedman WF (1967) Vitamin D as a cause of the supravalvular aortic stenosis syndrome. Am Heart J 73:718–720

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Taussig HB (1966) Possible injury to the cardiovascular system from vitamin D. Ann Intern Med 65:1195–1200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Stare FJ et al (1966) Congenital supravalvular aortic stenosis, idiopathic hypercalcemia, and vitamin D. Nutr Rev 24:311–313

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Seelig MS (1969) Vitamin D and cardiovascular, renal, and brain damage in infancy and childhood. Ann N Y Acad Sci 147:539–582

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Garcia RE, Friedman WF, Kaback MM, Rowe RD (1964) Idiopathic hypercalcemia and supravalvular aortic stenosis. Documentation of a new syndrome. N Engl J Med 271:117–120

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Friedman WF, Roberts WC (1966) Vitamin D and the supravalvar aortic stenosis syndrome.The transplacental effects of vitamin D on the aorta of the rabbit. Circulation 34:77–86

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Coleman EN (1965) Infantile hypercalcaemia and cardiovascular lesions. Evidence, hypothesis, and speculation. Arch Dis Child 40:535–540

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Antia AU, Wiltse HE, Rowe RD, Pitt EL, Levin S, Ottesen OE, Cooke RE (1967) Pathogenesis of the supravalvular aortic stenosis syndrome. J Pediatr 71:431–441

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Barold SS, Linhart JW, Samet P (1968) Coarctation of the aorta with unusual facies and mental retardation. Ann Intern Med 69:103–106

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Beuren AJ, Schulz R, Sinapius D, Stoermer J (1969) Calcinosis of the arteries with coronary calcification in infancy. Am Heart J 78:87–93

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Bird T (1974) Idiopathic arterial calcification in infancy. Arch Dis Child 49:82–89

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  13. Forbes GB, Cafarelli C, Manning J (1968) Vitamin D and infantile hypercalcemia. Pediatrics 42:203–204

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Goodenday LS, Gordon GS (1971) No risk from vitamin D in pregnancy. Ann Intern Med 75:807–808

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Taylor CB, Hass GM, Ho KJ, Liu LB (1972) Risk factors in the pathogenesis of atherosclerotic heart disease and generalized atherosclerosis. Ann Clin Lab Sci 2:239–243

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Kummerow FA (1979) Nutrition imbalance and angiotoxins as dietary risk factors in coronary heart disease. Am J Clin Nutr 32:58–83

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Eisenstein R, Zeruolis L (1964) Vitamin D-induced aortic calcification. Arch Pathol 77:27–35

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Schenk EA, Penn I, Schwartz S (1965) Experimental atherosclerosis in the dog: a morphologic evaluation. Arch Pathol 80:102–109

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Mallick NP, Berlyne GM (1968) Arterial calcification after vitamin-D therapy in hyperphosphataemic renal failure. Lancet 2:1316–1320

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Way WG, Morgan DL, Sutton LE Jr (1958) Hypertension and hypercalcemic nephropathy due to vitamin D intoxication; a case report. Pediatrics 21:59–69

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Blum M, Kirsten M, Worth MH Jr (1977) Reversible hypertension. Caused by the hypercalcemia of hyperparathyroidism, vitamin D toxicity, and calcium infusion. Jama 237:262–263

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Price JD, Sookochoff MM (1969) Arterial calcification after vitamin D. Lancet 1:416

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Bajusz E, Jasmin G (1963) Action of parathyroidectomy and dihydrotachysterol on myocardial calcification due to coronary vein obstruction. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 112:752–755

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Verberckmoes R, Bouillon R, Krempien B (1975) Disappearance of vascular calcifications during treatment of renal osteodystrophy. Two patients treated with high doses of vitamin D and aluminum hydroxide. Ann Intern Med 82:529–533

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Aryanpur I, Farhoudi A, Zangeneh F (1974) Congestive heart failure secondary to idiopathic hypoparathyroidism. Am J Dis Child 127:738–739

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Falko JM, Bush CA, Tzagournis M, Thomas FB (1976) Case report. Congestive heart failure complicating the hungry bone syndrome. Am J Med Sci 271:85–89

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Johnson JD, Jennings R (1968) Hypocalcemia and cardiac arrhythmias. Am J Dis Child 115:373–376

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Yogamundi Moon J (1972) Factors affecting arterial calcification associated with atherosclerosis. A review. Atherosclerosis 16:119–126

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Zittermann A, Schleithoff SS, Koerfer R (2007) Vitamin D and vascular calcification. Curr Opin Lipidol 18:41–46

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Knox EG (1973) Ischaemic-heart-disease mortality and dietary intake of calcium. Lancet 1:1465–1467

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Linden V (1974) Vitamin D and myocardial infarction. Br Med J 3:647–650

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Hollis BW, Horst RL (2007) The assessment of circulating 25(OH)D and 1, 25(OH)2D: where we are and where we are going. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 103:473–476

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Haddad JG Jr, Hahn TJ (1973) Natural and synthetic sources of circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D in man. Nature 244:515–517

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Poskitt EM, Cole TJ, Lawson DE (1979) Diet, sunlight, and 25-hydroxy vitamin D in healthy children and adults. Br Med J 1:221–223

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Schmidt-Gayk H, Goossen J, Lendle F, Seidel D (1977) Serum 25-hydroxycalciferol in myocardial infarction. Atherosclerosis 26:55–58

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Lund B, Badskjaer J, Lund B, Soerensen OH (1978) Vitamin D and ischaemic heart disease. Horm Metab Res 10:553–556

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Vik B, Try K, Thelle DS, Forde OH (1979) Tromso Heart Study: vitamin D metabolism and myocardial infarction. Br Med J 2:176

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. De Langen CD, Donath WF (1956) Vitamin D sclerosis of the arteries and the danger of feeding extra vitamin D to older people, with a view on the development of different forms of arteriosclerosis. Acta Med Scand 156:317–323

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Penn I, Schenk E, Rob C, Deweese J, Schwartz SI (1965) Evaluation of the development of athero-arteriosclerosis in autogenous venous grafts inserted into the peripheral arterial system. Circulation 31(SUPPL 1):192–196

    Google Scholar 

  40. Fleischman AI, Bierenbaum ML, Raichelson R, Hayton T, Watson P (1970) Vitamin D and hypercholesterolemia in adult humans: Atherosclerosis, proceedings of the second international symposium. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp 468–472

    Google Scholar 

  41. Linden V, Linden V (1975) Vitamin D and serum cholesterol. Scand J Soc Med 3:83–85

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Scragg R, Holdaway I, Jackson R, Lim T (1992) Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 and its relation to physical activity and other heart disease risk factors in the general population. Ann Epidemiol 2:697–703

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Scragg R, Holdaway I, Singh V, Metcalf P, Baker J, Dryson E (1995) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 is related to physical activity and ethnicity but not obesity in a multicultural workforce. Aust N Z J Med 25:218–223

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Scragg R, Khaw KT, Murphy S (1995) Effect of winter oral vitamin D3 supplementation on cardiovascular risk factors in elderly adults. Eur J Clin Nutr 49:640–646

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Martins D, Wolf M, Pan D, Zadshir A, Tareen N, Thadhani R, Felsenfeld A, Levine B, Mehrotra R, Norris K (2007) Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and the serum levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D in the United States: data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Intern Med 167:1159–1165

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Holick MF, MacLaughlin JA, Doppelt SH (1981) Regulation of cutaneous previtamin D3 photosynthesis in man: skin pigment is not an essential regulator. Science 211:590–593

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Kimlin MG (2008) Geographic location and vitamin D synthesis. Mol Aspects Med 29:453–461

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Scragg R (1981) Seasonality of cardiovascular disease mortality and the possible protective effect of ultra-violet radiation. Int J Epidemiol 10:337–341

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. MacLaughlin J, Holick MF (1985) Aging decreases the capacity of human skin to produce vitamin D3. J Clin Invest 76:1536–1538

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  50. Clemens TL, Adams JS, Henderson SL, Holick MF (1982) Increased skin pigment reduces the capacity of skin to synthesise vitamin D3. Lancet 1:74–76

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Scragg R (1995) Sunlight, vitamin D and cardiovascular disease. In: Crass MF, Avioloi LV (eds) Calcium-regulating hormones and cardiovascular function. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 213–237

    Google Scholar 

  52. Wong A (2008) Incident solar radiation and coronary heart disease mortality rates in Europe. Eur J Epidemiol 23:609–614

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Scragg R, Sowers M, Bell C (2007) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D, ethnicity, and blood pressure in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Hypertens 20:713–719

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Rockell JE, Skeaff CM, Williams SM, Green TJ (2006) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations of New Zealanders aged 15 years and older. Osteoporos Int 17:1382–1389

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Ornato JP, Peberdy MA, Chandra NC, Bush DE (1996) Seasonal pattern of acute myocardial infarction in the National Registry of Myocardial Infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 28:1684–1688

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Spencer FA, Goldberg RJ, Becker RC, Gore JM (1998) Seasonal distribution of acute myocardial infarction in the second National Registry of Myocardial Infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 31:1226–1233

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Sheth T, Nair C, Muller J, Yusuf S (1999) Increased winter mortality from acute myocardial infarction and stroke: the effect of age. J Am Coll Cardiol 33:1916–1919

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Oberg AL, Ferguson JA, McIntyre LM, Horner RD (2000) Incidence of stroke and season of the year: evidence of an association. Am J Epidemiol 152:558–564

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Vinall PE, Maislin G, Michele JJ, Deitch C, Simeone FA (1994) Seasonal and latitudinal occurrence of cerebral vasospasm and subarachnoid hemorrhage in the northern hemisphere. Epidemiology 5:302–308

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Allegra JR, Cochrane DG, Biglow R (2001) Monthly, weekly, and daily patterns in the incidence of congestive heart failure. Acad Emerg Med 8:682–685

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Stewart S, McIntyre K, Capewell S, McMurray JJ (2002) Heart failure in a cold climate. Seasonal variation in heart failure-related morbidity and mortality. J Am Coll Cardiol 39:760–766

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Page RL, Zipes DP, Powell JL, Luceri RM, Gold MR, Peters R, Russo AM, Bigger JT Jr, Sung RJ, McBurnie MA (2004) Seasonal variation of mortality in the Antiarrhythmics Versus Implantable Defibrillators (AVID) study registry. Heart Rhythm 1:435–440

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Finkelhor RS, Cater G, Qureshi A, Einstadter D, Hecker MT, Bosich G (2005) Seasonal diagnosis of echocardiographically demonstrated endocarditis. Chest 128:2588–2592

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Stein PD, Kayali F, Beemath A, Skaf E, Alnas M, Alesh I, Olson RE (2005) Mortality from acute pulmonary embolism according to season. Chest 128:3156–3158

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Kloner RA, Poole WK, Perritt RL (1999) When throughout the year is coronary death most likely to occur? A 12-year population-based analysis of more than 220 000 cases. Circulation 100:1630–1634

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Seto TB, Mittleman MA, Davis RB, Taira DA, Kawachi I (1998) Seasonal variation in coronary artery disease mortality in Hawaii: observational study. Bmj 316:1946–1947

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  67. Kvaloy JT, Skogvoll E (2007) Modelling seasonal and weather dependency of cardiac arrests using the covariate order method. Stat Med 26:3315–3329

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Scragg R, Jackson R, Holdaway IM, Lim T, Beaglehole R (1990) Myocardial infarction is inversely associated with plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels: a community-based study. Int J Epidemiol 19:559–563

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Scragg R, Jackson R, Holdaway I, Woollard G, Woollard D (1989) Changes in plasma vitamin levels in the first 48 hours after onset of acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 64:971–974

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Simpson RU (1983) Evidence for a specific 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor in rat heart (abstract). Circulation 68:239

    Google Scholar 

  71. Simpson RU, Thomas GA, Arnold AJ (1985) Identification of 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptors and activities in muscle. J Biol Chem 260:8882–8891

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Walters MR, Wicker DC, Riggle PC (1986) 1, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptors identified in the rat heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 18:67–72

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Stumpf WES, Madhabananda S, deLuca H (1985) Sites of action of 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 identified by thaw-mount autoradiography. In: AW Norman (ed) Proceedings of Sixth Workshop on Vitamin D. Walter DeGruyter, Berlin, pp 416–418

    Google Scholar 

  74. Thomasset M, Parkes CO, Cuisinier-Gleizes P (1982) Rat calcium-binding proteins: distribution, development, and vitamin D dependence. Am J Physiol 243:E483–488

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Weishaar RE, Simpson RU (1987) Vitamin D3 and cardiovascular function in rats. J Clin Invest 79:1706–1712

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  76. Weishaar RE, Simpson RU (1987) Involvement of vitamin D3 with cardiovascular function. II. Direct and indirect effects. Am J Physiol 253:E675–683

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Weishaar RE, Kim SN, Saunders DE, Simpson RU (1990) Involvement of vitamin D3 with cardiovascular function. III. Effects on physical and morphological properties. Am J Physiol 258:E134–142

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. ÓConnell TD, Simpson RU (1995) 1, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 regulation of myocardial growth and c-myc levels in the rat heart. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 213:59–65

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. ÓConnell TD, Berry JE, Jarvis AK, Somerman MJ, Simpson RU (1997) 1, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 regulation of cardiac myocyte proliferation and hypertrophy. Am J Physiol 272:H1751–1758

    Google Scholar 

  80. Simpson RU, Weishaar RE (1988) Involvement of 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in regulating myocardial calcium metabolism: physiological and pathological actions. Cell Calcium 9:285–292

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Weishaar RE, Burrows SD, Kim SN, Kobylarz-Singer DC, Andrews LK, Quade MM, Overhiser R, Kaplan HR (1987) Protection of the failing heart: Comparative effects of chronic administration of digitalis and diltiazem on myocardial metabolism in the ­cardiomyopathic hamster. J Appl Cardiol 2:339–360

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Kawashima H (1987) Receptor for 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D in a vascular smooth muscle cell line derived from rat aorta. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 146:1–6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Merke J, Milde P, Lewicka S, Hugel U, Klaus G, Mangelsdorf DJ, Haussler MR, Rauterberg EW, Ritz E (1989) Identification and regulation of 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor activity and biosynthesis of 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Studies in cultured bovine aortic endothelial cells and human dermal capillaries. J Clin Invest 83:1903–1915

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Kurtz TW, Portale AA, Morris RC Jr (1986) Evidence for a difference in vitamin D ­metabolism between spontaneously hypertensive and Wistar-Kyoto rats. Hypertension 8:1015–1020

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Bukoski RD, Xue H (1993) On the vascular inotropic action of 1, 25-(OH)2 vitamin D3. Am J Hypertens 6:388–396

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. McCarron DA, Pingree PA, Rubin RJ, Gaucher SM, Molitch M, Krutzik S (1980) Enhanced parathyroid function in essential hypertension: a homeostatic response to a urinary calcium leak. Hypertension 2:162–168

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Zachariah PK, Schwartz GL, Strong CG, Ritter SG (1988) Parathyroid hormone and ­calcium. A relationship in hypertension. Am J Hypertens 1:79S–82S

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Resnick LM, Muller FB, Laragh JH (1986) Calcium-regulating hormones in essential ­hypertension. Relation to plasma renin activity and sodium metabolism. Ann Intern Med 105:649–654

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Sowers MR, Wallace RB, Lemke JH (1985) The association of intakes of vitamin D and calcium with blood pressure among women. Am J Clin Nutr 42:135–142

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Kokot F, Pietrek J, Srokowska S, Wartenberg W, Kuska J, Jedrychowska M, Duda G, Zielinska K, Wartenberg Z, Kuzmiak M (1981) 25-Hydroxyvitamin D in patients with ­essential hypertension. Clin Nephrol 16:188–192

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Brickman AS, Nyby MD, von Hungen K, Eggena P, Tuck ML (1990) Calcitropic ­hormones, platelet calcium, and blood pressure in essential hypertension. Hypertension 16:515–522

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Morimoto S, Imaoka M, Kitano S, Imanaka S, Fukuo K, Miyashita Y, Koh E, Ogihara T (1991) Exaggerated natri-calci-uresis and increased circulating levels of parathyroid ­hormone and 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D in patients with senile hypertension. Contrib Nephrol 90:94–98

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Scragg R, Holdaway I, Singh V, Metcalf P, Baker J, Dryson E (1995) Serum 25-­hydroxycholecalciferol concentration in newly detected hypertension. Am J Hypertens 8:429–432

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Sowers MF, Wallace RB, Hollis BW, Lemke JH (1988) Relationship between 1, 25-­dihydroxyvitamin D and blood pressure in a geographically defined population. Am J Clin Nutr 48:1053–1056

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Young EW, McCarron DA, Morris CD (1990) Calcium regulating hormones in essential hypertension. Importance of gender. Am J Hypertens 3:161S–166S

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Lind L, Hanni A, Lithell H, Hvarfner A, Sorensen OH, Ljunghall S (1995) Vitamin D is related to blood pressure and other cardiovascular risk factors in middle-aged men. Am J Hypertens 8:894–901

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Kristal-Boneh E, Froom P, Harari G, Ribak J (1997) Association of calcitriol and blood ­pressure in normotensive men. Hypertension 30:1289–1294

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Lind L, Wengle B, Ljunghall S (1987) Blood pressure is lowered by vitamin D (alphacalcidol) during long-term treatment of patients with intermittent hypercalcaemia. A ­double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Acta Med Scand 222:423–427

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Lind L, Lithell H, Skarfors E, Wide L, Ljunghall S (1988) Reduction of blood pressure by treatment with alphacalcidol. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. Acta Med Scand 223:211–217

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Lind L, Pollare T, Hvarfner A, Lithell H, Sorensen OH, Ljunghall S (1989) Long-term ­treatment with active vitamin D (alphacalcidol) in middle-aged men with impaired glucose tolerance. Effects on insulin secretion and sensitivity, glucose tolerance and blood pressure. Diabetes Res 11:141–147

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Orwoll ES, Oviatt S (1990) Relationship of mineral metabolism and long-term calcium and cholecalciferol supplementation to blood pressure in normotensive men. Am J Clin Nutr 52:717–721

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Orwoll ES, Weigel RM, Oviatt SK, McClung MR, Deftos LJ (1988) Calcium and cholecalciferol: effects of small supplements in normal men. Am J Clin Nutr 48:127–130

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Gillor A, Groneck P, Kaiser J, Schmitz-Stolbrink A (1989) Congestive heart failure in rickets caused by vitamin D deficiency. Monatsschr Kinderheilkd 137:108–110

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Connor TB, Rosen BL, Blaustein MP, Applefeld MM, Doyle LA (1982) Hypocalcemia precipitating congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 307:869–872

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Brunvand L, Haga P, Tangsrud SE, Haug E (1995) Congestive heart failure caused by ­vitamin D deficiency? Acta Paediatr 84:106–108

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Uysal S, Kalayci AG, Baysal K (1999) Cardiac functions in children with vitamin D ­deficiency rickets. Pediatr Cardiol 20:283–286

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. McGonigle RJ, Timmis AD, Keenan J, Jewitt DE, Weston MJ, Parsons V (1981) The ­influence of 1 alpha-hydroxycholecalciferol on left ventricular function in end-stage renal failure. Proc Eur Dial Transplant Assoc 18:579–585

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Coratelli P, Petrarulo F, Buongiorno E, Giannattasio M, Antonelli G, Amerio A (1984) Improvement in left ventricular function during treatment of hemodialysis patients with 25-OHD3. Contrib Nephrol 41:433–437

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Lemmila S, Saha H, Virtanen V, Ala-Houhala I, Pasternack A (1998) Effect of intravenous calcitriol on cardiac systolic and diastolic function in patients on hemodialysis. Am J Nephrol 18:404–410

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Park CW, Oh YS, Shin YS, Kim CM, Kim YS, Kim SY, Choi EJ, Chang YS, Bang BK (1999) Intravenous calcitriol regresses myocardial hypertrophy in hemodialysis patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism. Am J Kidney Dis 33:73–81

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Shane E, Mancini D, Aaronson K, Silverberg SJ, Seibel MJ, Addesso V, McMahon DJ (1997) Bone mass, vitamin D deficiency, and hyperparathyroidism in congestive heart ­failure. Am J Med 103:197–207

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Kunitomo M, Kinoshita K, Bando Y (1981) Experimental atherosclerosis in rats fed a ­vitamin D, cholesterol-rich diet. J Pharmacobiodyn 4:718–723

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Takeo S, Schraven E, Keil M, Nitz RE (1982) Vitamin D-induced myocardial lesions and the protection by carbocromen. Arzneimittelforschung 32:1412–1417

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Toda T, Leszczynski DE, Kummerow FA (1983) The role of 25-hydroxy-vitamin D3 in the induction of atherosclerosis in swine and rabbit by hypervitaminosis D. Acta Pathol Jpn 33:37–44

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Atkinson J (1992) Vascular calcium overload. Physiological and pharmacological ­consequences. Drugs 44(Suppl 1):111–118

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Fleckenstein-Grun G, Thimm F, Frey M, Matyas S (1995) Progression and regression by verapamil of vitamin D3-induced calcific medial degeneration in coronary arteries of rats. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 26:207–213

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Bennani-Kabchi N, Kehel L, el Bouayadi F, Fdhil H, Amarti A, Saidi A, Marquie G (1999) New model of atherosclerosis in sand rats subjected to a high cholesterol diet and vitamin D2. Therapie 54:559–565

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Watson KE, Abrolat ML, Malone LL, Hoeg JM, Doherty T, Detrano R, Demer LL (1997) Active serum vitamin D levels are inversely correlated with coronary calcification. Circulation 96:1755–1760

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Doherty TM, Tang W, Dascalos S, Watson KE, Demer LL, Shavelle RM, Detrano RC (1997) Ethnic origin and serum levels of 1alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 are independent predictors of coronary calcium mass measured by electron-beam computed tomography. Circulation 96:1477–1481

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Arad Y, Spadaro LA, Roth M, Scordo J, Goodman K, Sherman S, Lerner G, Newstein D, Guerci AD (1998) Serum concentration of calcium, 1, 25 vitamin D and parathyroid hormone are not correlated with coronary calcifications. An electron beam computed tomography study. Coron Artery Dis 9:513–518

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Bonjour JP, Chevalley T, Fardellone P (2007) Calcium intake and vitamin D metabolism and action, in healthy conditions and in prostate cancer. Br J Nutr 97:611–616

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Teng M, Wolf M, Lowrie E, Ofsthun N, Lazarus JM, Thadhani R (2003) Survival of patients undergoing hemodialysis with paricalcitol or calcitriol therapy. N Engl J Med 349:446–456

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Shoji T, Shinohara K, Kimoto E, Emoto M, Tahara H, Koyama H, Inaba M, Fukumoto S, Ishimura E, Miki T et al (2004) Lower risk for cardiovascular mortality in oral 1alpha-hydroxy vitamin D3 users in a haemodialysis population. Nephrol Dial Transplant 19:179–184

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Teng M, Wolf M, Ofsthun MN, Lazarus JM, Hernan MA, Camargo CA Jr, Thadhani R (2005) Activated injectable vitamin D and hemodialysis survival: a historical cohort study. J Am Soc Nephrol 16:1115–1125

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Naves-Diaz M, Alvarez-Hernandez D, Passlick-Deetjen J, Guinsburg A, Marelli C, Rodriguez-Puyol D, Cannata-Andia JB (2008) Oral active vitamin D is associated with improved survival in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 74:1070–1078

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Melamed ML, Eustace JA, Plantinga L, Jaar BG, Fink NE, Coresh J, Klag MJ, Powe NR (2006) Changes in serum calcium, phosphate, and PTH and the risk of death in incident dialysis patients: a longitudinal study. Kidney Int 70:351–357

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Kalantar-Zadeh K, Kuwae N, Regidor DL, Kovesdy CP, Kilpatrick RD, Shinaberger CS, McAllister CJ, Budoff MJ, Salusky IB, Kopple JD (2006) Survival predictability of time-varying indicators of bone disease in maintenance hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 70:771–780

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Tentori F, Hunt WC, Stidley CA, Rohrscheib MR, Bedrick EJ, Meyer KB, Johnson HK, Zager PG (2006) Mortality risk among hemodialysis patients receiving different vitamin D analogs. Kidney Int 70:1858–1865

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Kovesdy CP, Ahmadzadeh S, Anderson JE, Kalantar-Zadeh K (2008) Association of activated vitamin D treatment and mortality in chronic kidney disease. Arch Intern Med 168:397–403

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Shoben AB, Rudser KD, de Boer IH, Young B, Kestenbaum B (2008) Association of oral calcitriol with improved survival in nondialyzed CKD. J Am Soc Nephrol 19:1613–1619

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  131. Wolf M, Shah A, Gutierrez O, Ankers E, Monroy M, Tamez H, Steele D, Chang Y, Camargo CA Jr, Tonelli M et al (2007) Vitamin D levels and early mortality among incident hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 72:1004–1013

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Wolf M, Betancourt J, Chang Y, Shah A, Teng M, Tamez H, Gutierrez O, Camargo CA Jr, Melamed M, Norris K et al (2008) Impact of activated vitamin D and race on survival among hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 19(7):1379–1388

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  133. Al-Aly Z (2007) Vitamin D as a novel nontraditional risk factor for mortality in hemodialysis patients: the need for randomized trials. Kidney Int 72:909–911

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. de Boer IH, Kestenbaum B (2008) Vitamin D in chronic kidney disease: is the jury in? Kidney Int 74:985–987

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Wang TJ, Pencina MJ, Booth SL, Jacques PF, Ingelsson E, Lanier K, Benjamin EJ, D’Agostino RB, Wolf M, Vasan RS (2008) Vitamin D deficiency and risk of cardiovascular disease. Circulation 117:503–511

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Giovannucci E, Liu Y, Hollis BW, Rimm EB (2008) 25-hydroxyvitamin D and risk of myocardial infarction in men: a prospective study. Arch Intern Med 168:1174–1180

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  137. Melamed ML, Michos ED, Post W, Astor B (2008) 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and the risk of mortality in the general population. Arch Intern Med 168:1629–1637

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  138. Dobnig H, Pilz S, Scharnagl H, Renner W, Seelhorst U, Wellnitz B, Kinkeldei J, Boehm BO, Weihrauch G, Maerz W (2008) Independent association of low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d and 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin d levels with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Arch Intern Med 168:1340–1349

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Hsia J, Heiss G, Ren H, Allison M, Dolan NC, Greenland P, Heckbert SR, Johnson KC, Manson JE, Sidney S et al (2007) Calcium/vitamin D supplementation and cardiovascular events. Circulation 115:846–854

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Poole KE, Loveridge N, Barker PJ, Halsall DJ, Rose C, Reeve J, Warburton EA (2006) Reduced vitamin D in acute stroke. Stroke 37:243–245

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Rajasree S, Rajpal K, Kartha CC, Sarma PS, Kutty VR, Iyer CS, Girija G (2001) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 levels are elevated in South Indian patients with ischemic heart disease. Eur J Epidemiol 17:567–571

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Zittermann A, Schleithoff SS, Tenderich G, Berthold HK, Korfer R, Stehle P (2003) Low vitamin D status: a contributing factor in the pathogenesis of congestive heart failure? J Am Coll Cardiol 41:105–112

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Zittermann A, Schleithoff SS, Gotting C, Dronow O, Fuchs U, Kuhn J, Kleesiek K, Tenderich G, Koerfer R (2008) Poor outcome in end-stage heart failure patients with low circulating calcitriol levels. Eur J Heart Fail 10:321–327

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Schleithoff SS, Zittermann A, Tenderich G, Berthold HK, Stehle P, Koerfer R (2006) Vitamin D supplementation improves cytokine profiles in patients with congestive heart failure: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 83:754–759

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Melamed ML, Muntner P, Michos ED, Uribarri J, Weber C, Sharma J, Raggi P (2008) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and the prevalence of peripheral arterial disease. Results from NHANES 2001 to 2004. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 28(6):1179–1185

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  146. Jorde R, Bonaa KH (2000) Calcium from dairy products, vitamin D intake, and blood pressure: the Tromso Study. Am J Clin Nutr 71:1530–1535

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Forman JP, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC (2005) Vitamin D intake and risk of incident hypertension: results from three large prospective cohort studies. Hypertension 46:676–682

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Wang L, Manson JE, Buring JE, Lee IM, Sesso HD (2008) Dietary intake of dairy products, calcium, and vitamin D and the risk of hypertension in middle-aged and older women. Hypertension 51:1073–1079

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Forman JP, Giovannucci E, Holmes MD, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Tworoger SS, Willett WC, Curhan GC (2007) Plasma 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of incident hypertension. Hypertension 49:1063–1069

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Snijder MB, Lips P, Seidell JC, Visser M, Deeg DJ, Dekker JM, van Dam RM (2007) Vitamin D status and parathyroid hormone levels in relation to blood pressure: a population-based study in older men and women. J Intern Med 261:558–565

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Pfeifer M, Begerow B, Minne HW, Nachtigall D, Hansen C (2001) Effects of a short-term vitamin D(3) and calcium supplementation on blood pressure and parathyroid hormone levels in elderly women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86:1633–1637

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Krause R, Buhring M, Hopfenmuller W, Holick MF, Sharma AM (1998) Ultraviolet B and blood pressure. Lancet 352:709–710

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Newmark HL, Heaney RP (2006) Calcium, vitamin D, and risk reduction of colorectal cancer. Nutr Cancer 56:1–2

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Michos ED, Blumenthal RS (2007) Vitamin D supplementation and cardiovascular disease risk. Circulation 115:827–828

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Heaney RP (2008) Vitamin D in health and disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 3:1535–1541

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  156. Vieth R, Bischoff-Ferrari H, Boucher BJ, Dawson-Hughes B, Garland CF, Heaney RP, Holick MF, Hollis BW, Lamberg-Allardt C, McGrath JJ et al (2007) The urgent need to recommend an intake of vitamin D that is effective. Am J Clin Nutr 85:649–650

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Autier P, Gandini S (2007) Vitamin D supplementation and total mortality: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med 167:1730–1737

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Jackson RD, LaCroix AZ, Gass M, Wallace RB, Robbins J, Lewis CE, Bassford T, Beresford SA, Black HR, Blanchette P et al (2006) Calcium plus vitamin D supplementation and the risk of fractures. N Engl J Med 354:669–683

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Giovannucci E (2007) Can vitamin D reduce total mortality? Arch Intern Med 167:1709–1710

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Vieth R, Chan PC, MacFarlane GD (2001) Efficacy and safety of vitamin D3 intake ­exceeding the lowest observed adverse effect level. Am J Clin Nutr 73:288–294

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Beaglehole R, Magnus P (2002) The search for new risk factors for coronary heart disease: occupational therapy for epidemiologists? Int J Epidemiol 31:1117–1122, author reply 1134–1115

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Ross R (1999) Atherosclerosis – an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med 340:115–126

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Hansson GK, Libby P, Schonbeck U, Yan ZQ (2002) Innate and adaptive immunity in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Circ Res 91:281–291

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Rao M, Jaber BL, Balakrishnan VS (2006) Inflammatory biomarkers and cardiovascular risk: association or cause and effect? Semin Dial 19:129–135

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Tousoulis D, Antoniades C, Koumallos N, Stefanadis C (2006) Pro-inflammatory cytokines in acute coronary syndromes: from bench to bedside. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 17:225–233

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Cardaropoli S, Silvagno F, Morra E, Pescarmona GP, Todros T (2003) Infectious and inflammatory stimuli decrease endothelial nitric oxide synthase activity in vitro. J Hypertens 21:2103–2110

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Khoshdel AR, Carney SL, Nair BR, Gillies A (2007) Better management of cardiovascular diseases by pulse wave velocity: combining clinical practice with clinical research using evidence-based medicine. Clin Med Res 5:45–52

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  168. Newby AC (2005) Dual role of matrix metalloproteinases (matrixins) in intimal thickening and atherosclerotic plaque rupture. Physiol Rev 85:1–31

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Loftus IM, Thompson MM (2002) The role of matrix metalloproteinases in vascular disease. Vasc Med 7:117–133

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Perlstein TS, Lee RT (2006) Smoking, metalloproteinases, and vascular disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 26:250–256

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Turk S, Akbulut M, Yildiz A, Gurbilek M, Gonen S, Tombul Z, Yeksan M (2002) Comparative effect of oral pulse and intravenous calcitriol treatment in hemodialysis patients: the effect on serum IL-1 and IL-6 levels and bone mineral density. Nephron 90:188–194

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Mohamed-Ali V, Goodrick S, Rawesh A, Katz DR, Miles JM, Yudkin JS, Klein S, Coppack SW (1997) Subcutaneous adipose tissue releases interleukin-6, but not tumor necrosis factor-alpha, in vivo. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:4196–4200

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Bastard JP, Jardel C, Bruckert E, Blondy P, Capeau J, Laville M, Vidal H, Hainque B (2000) Elevated levels of interleukin 6 are reduced in serum and subcutaneous adipose tissue of obese women after weight loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:3338–3342

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Pickup JC (2004) Inflammation and activated innate immunity in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 27:813–823

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. Giulietti A, van Etten E, Overbergh L, Stoffels K, Bouillon R, Mathieu C (2007) Monocytes from type 2 diabetic patients have a pro-inflammatory profile. 1, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D(3) works as anti-inflammatory. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 77:47–57

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Liu PT, Stenger S, Li H, Wenzel L, Tan BH, Krutzik SR, Ochoa MT, Schauber J, Wu K, Meinken C et al (2006) Toll-like receptor triggering of a vitamin D-mediated human antimicrobial response. Science 311:1770–1773

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Martineau AR, Honecker FU, Wilkinson RJ, Griffiths CJ (2007) Vitamin D in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 103:793–798

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Stroder J, Kasal P (1970) Phagocytosis in vitamin D deficient rickets. Klin Wochenschr 48:383–384

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Karatekin G, Kaya A, Salihoglu O, Balci H, Nuhoglu A (2007) Association of subclinical vitamin D deficiency in newborns with acute lower respiratory infection and their mothers. Eur J Clin Nutr 117:803–811

    Google Scholar 

  180. Laaksi I, Ruohola JP, Tuohimaa P, Auvinen A, Haataja R, Pihlajamaki H, Ylikomi T (2007) An association of serum vitamin D concentrations < 40 nmol/L with acute respiratory tract infection in young Finnish men. Am J Clin Nutr 86:714–717

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Aloia JF, Li-Ng M (2007) Re: epidemic influenza and vitamin D. Epidemiol Infect 135:1095–1096, author reply 1097–1098

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  182. Muller K, Diamant M, Bendtzen K (1991) Inhibition of production and function of ­interleukin-6 by 1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Immunol Lett 28:115–120

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Willheim M, Thien R, Schrattbauer K, Bajna E, Holub M, Gruber R, Baier K, Pietschmann P, Reinisch W, Scheiner O et al (1999) Regulatory effects of 1alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 on the cytokine production of human peripheral blood lymphocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84:3739–3744

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Zhu Y, Mahon BD, Froicu M, Cantorna MT (2005) Calcium and 1 alpha, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 target the TNF-alpha pathway to suppress experimental inflammatory bowel disease. Eur J Immunol 35:217–224

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Canning MO, Grotenhuis K, de Wit H, Ruwhof C, Drexhage HA (2001) 1-alpha, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1, 25(OH)(2)D(3)) hampers the maturation of fully active ­immature dendritic cells from monocytes. Eur J Endocrinol 145:351–357

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Pittas AG, Harris SS, Stark PC, Dawson-Hughes B (2007) The effects of calcium and ­vitamin D supplementation on blood glucose and markers of inflammation in nondiabetic adults. Diabetes Care 30:980–986

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Simpson RU, Hershey SH, Nibbelink KA (2007) Characterization of heart size and blood pressure in the vitamin D receptor knockout mouse. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 103:521–524

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Xiang W, Kong J, Chen S, Cao LP, Qiao G, Zheng W, Liu W, Li X, Gardner DG, Li YC (2005) Cardiac hypertrophy in vitamin D receptor knockout mice: role of the systemic and cardiac renin-angiotensin systems. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 288:E125–132

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. Timms PM, Mannan N, Hitman GA, Noonan K, Mills PG, Syndercombe-Court D, Aganna E, Price CP, Boucher BJ (2002) Circulating MMP9, vitamin D and variation in the TIMP-1 response with VDR genotype: mechanisms for inflammatory damage in chronic disorders? Qjm 95:787–796

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Sundstrom J, Evans JC, Benjamin EJ, Levy D, Larson MG, Sawyer DB, Siwik DA, Colucci WS, Sutherland P, Wilson PW et al (2004) Relations of plasma matrix metalloproteinase-9 to clinical cardiovascular risk factors and echocardiographic left ventricular measures: the Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 109:2850–2856

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Duprez D, De Buyzere M, De Backer T, Clement D (1993) Relationship between vitamin D and the regional blood flow and vascular resistance in moderate arterial hypertension. J Hypertens Suppl 11:S304–305

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. London GM, Guerin AP, Verbeke FH, Pannier B, Boutouyrie P, Marchais SJ, Metivier F (2007) Mineral metabolism and arterial functions in end-stage renal disease: potential role of 25-hydroxyvitamin D deficiency. J Am Soc Nephrol 18:613–620

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. Targher G, Bertolini L, Padovani R, Zenari L, Scala L, Cigolini M, Arcaro G (2006) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 concentrations and carotid artery intima-media thickness among type 2 diabetic patients. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 65:593–597

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Sugden JA, Davies JI, Witham MD, Morris AD, Struthers AD (2008) Vitamin D improves endothelial function in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus and low vitamin D levels. Diabet Med 25:320–325

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. Suzuki A, Kotake M, Ono Y, Kato T, Oda N, Hayakawa N, Hashimoto S, Itoh M (2006) Hypovitaminosis D in type 2 diabetes mellitus: Association with microvascular complications and type of treatment. Endocr J 53:503–510

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. Zieman SJ, Melenovsky V, Kass DA (2005) Mechanisms, pathophysiology, and therapy of arterial stiffness. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 25:932–943

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. Abrams J (1997) Role of endothelial dysfunction in coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol 79:2–9

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. Monnink SH, Tio RA, van Boven AJ, van Gilst WH, van Veldhuisen DJ (2004) The role of coronary endothelial function testing in patients suspected for angina pectoris. Int J Cardiol 96:123–129

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. Li YC, Kong J, Wei M, Chen ZF, Liu SQ, Cao LP (2002) 1, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D(3) is a negative endocrine regulator of the renin-angiotensin system. J Clin Invest 110:229–238

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  200. Hill AB (1965) The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc R Soc Med 58:293–300

    Google Scholar 

  201. Gillie O (2006) Sunlight, Vitamin D and Health. In: Gillie O (ed) Occasional Reports. Health Research Forum, London

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Population Health, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand

    Robert Scragg

Authors
  1. Robert Scragg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert Scragg .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Grace Cancer Drug Center, New York State Department of Health, Elm & Carlton St., Buffalo, 14263, New York, USA

    Donald L. Trump

  2. Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Grace Cancer Drug Center, New York State Department of Health, Elm & Carlton St., Buffalo, 14263, New York, USA

    Candace S. Johnson

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Scragg, R. (2011). Vitamin D: Cardiovascular Function and Disease. In: Trump, D., Johnson, C. (eds) Vitamin D and Cancer. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7188-3_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation