Skip to main content

After Gallipoli: Empire, Nation and Diversity in Multicultural Turkey and Australia

  • Chapter
Reconciling Cultural and Political Identities in a Globalized World

Abstract

Gallipoli has played a critical role in the formation of national identity, and remains a significant part of contemporary identities for both Turkey and Australia.1 This chapter explores the ways in which the development of a racialised or ethno-culturally bound modernity in Australia and Turkey has followed a similar path, notwithstanding the very great differences in the histories of the countries, their political geographies, and their contemporary challenges. However real and important such differences may be, the struggle to create a state that can encompass diversity while claiming singularity offers a shared contradiction. As Bacek Ince has observed in her study of Turkey’s struggle with citizenship and identity, the formation of a fully republican citizenship requires the assertion of ‘constitutional patriotism’, where membership of the nation and full participation can accommodate cultural and linguistic pluralism.2 The challenges for Australia are not dissimilar.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 39.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 54.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Notes

  1. See Nicholas Toscano (2009) ‘Gallipoli Diggers and the “Forgotten” Holocaust’, Eureka Street, 19 (7), 17;

    Google Scholar 

  2. Brad West (2008) ‘Enchanting Pasts: The Role of International Civil Religious Pilgrimage in Reimagining National Collective Memory’, Sociological Theory, 26 (3), 258–70;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Brad West (2010a) ‘Dialogical Memorialization, International Travel and the Public Sphere: A Cultural Sociology of Commemoration and Tourism at the First World War Gallipoli Battlefields’, Tourist Studies, 10 (3), 209–25;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Brad West (2010b) ‘Turkish Memorialization at Gallipoli: Rethinking the Commemoration/Tourism Nexus’, School of Sociology, Politic and International Studies, University of Bristol, Working Paper 04–10, www.bristol.ac.uk/media-library/sites/spais/migrated/documents/west0410.pdf, accessed 12 November 2014; Rachel Woodlock (2011) ‘Being an Aussie Mossie: Muslim and Australian Identity Among Australian-born Muslims’, Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 22 (4), 391–407; and Bart Ziino (2006) ‘Who Owns Gallipoli? Australia’s Gallipoli Anxieties 1915–2005’, Journal of Australian Studies, 30 (88), 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Bacek Ince (2012) Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk’s Republic to the Present Day (London: I.B. Tauris), 20.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Geoffrey Robertson (2014) An Inconvenient Genocide: Who Now Remembers the Armenians? (Sydney: Random House), 46ff.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Aysel Morin and Ronald Lee (2010) ‘Constitutive Discourse of Turkish Nationalism: Atatürk’s Nutuk and the Rhetorical Construction of the “Turkish People”’, Communication Studies, 61 (5), 486.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Marilyn Lake (2005) ‘The White Australia Policy’, in Ann Curthoys and Marilyn Lake (eds), Connected Worlds: History in Transnational Perspective (Canberra: ANU E-Press), http://press.anu.edu.au/cw/mobile_devices/chl3s05.html, accessed 3 August 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Warwick Anderson (2002) The Cultivation of Whiteness: Science, Health and Racial Destiny in Australia (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  10. Pankaj Mishra (2012) From the Ruins of Empire: The Revolt Against the West and the Remaking of Asia (London: Allen Lane).

    Google Scholar 

  11. We merely sketch the debate here. For an indication see Vahagn Avedian (2012) ‘State Identity, Continuity, and Responsibility: The Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey and the Armenian Genocide’, European Journal of International Law, 23 (3), 797–820, arguing the case for the genocide, and

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Guenter Lewy (2005) The Armenian Massacres in Ottoman Turkey (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press), disputing the case. While there is agreement on the large-scale loss of life, the disputation is over intent, responsibility and contemporary consequences, and whether the events meet the definition of genocide as discussed by Robertson, An Inconvenient Genocide.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Benedict Anderson (1991) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso).

    Google Scholar 

  14. Robin Gerster and Peter Pierce (eds) (2004) On the War Path: An Anthology of Australian Military Travel (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  15. Ernest Scott (1916/2002) A Short History of Australia (A Project Gutenberg of Australia e-book), http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks02/0200471.txt, accessed 23 November 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Erik Jan Zürcher (1996) ‘Between Death and Desertion: The Experience of the Ottoman Soldier in World War I’, Turcica, 28, 235–58;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Edward J. Erickson (2001) Order to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War (Westport: Greenwood Press);

    Google Scholar 

  18. Nora Fisher Onar (2009) ‘Echoes of a Universalism Lost: Rival Representations of the Ottomans in Today’s Turkey’, Middle Eastern Studies, 45 (2), 229–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Ahmet İçduygu, Sule Toktas and B. Ali Soner (2007) ‘The Politics of Population in a Nation-Building Process: Emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31 (2), 358–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Although in 1839 a system of conscription was introduced in the Ottoman military through the Gulhane proclamation, and in July 1909 the military service law made it compulsory for all Ottoman subjects to serve, non-Muslim Ottoman citizens in the grey climate of early twentieth century were reluctant to serve in the army. In the classical Ottoman system, non-Muslims were exempted from serving based on a tax system. The leaders of the Greek, Assyrian, Armenian, and Bulgarian communities agreed to the military service on paper, but non-Muslims never actively participated in conscription. For the details see Erik Jan Zürcher (1998) ‘The Ottoman Conscription System, 1844–1914’, International Review of Social History, 43 (3), 437–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Ahmet İçduygu, Yılmaz Çolak and Nalan Soyarik (1999) ‘What is the Matter with Citizenship? A Turkish Debate’, Middle Eastern Studies, 35 (4), 187–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Ryan Gingeras (2009) Sorrowful Shores: Violence, Ethnicity and the End of the Ottoman Empire 1912–1923 (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  23. Feroz Ahmad (1993) The Making of Modern Turkey (London: Routledge).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  24. Kemal Kirişçi (2000) ‘Disaggregating Turkish Citizenship and Immigration Practices’, Middle Eastern Studies, 36 (3), 1–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Rifat N. Bali (2000) Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye’de Yahudileri: Bir Türkleştirme Serüveni (1923–1945) [The Jews of the Republican Turkey: A Venture of Turkification] (Istanbul: İletişim Yayınları).

    Google Scholar 

  26. Soner Çağaptay (2002) ‘Kemalist dönemde göç ve iskan politikaları: Türk kimliği üzerine bir çalışma’ [Policies of Migration and Settlement in the Kemalist Era: A Study on Turkish Identity], Toplum ve Bilim, 93, 218–41.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Ayhan Aktar (2000) Varlık Vergisi ve Türkleştirme Politikaları [Capital Tax and Turkification Policies] (Istanbul: Iletişim Yayınları).

    Google Scholar 

  28. Kemal Kirişçi and Gareth M. Winrow (1997) The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-Elite Ethnic Conflict (London: Frank Cass).

    Google Scholar 

  29. Neville Meaney (2001) ‘Britishness and Australian Identity: The Problem of Nationalism in Australian History and Historiography’, Australian Historical Studies, 32(116), 76–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Alastair Kennedy (2012) ‘Outwitting Billy Hughes and the White Australia Policy: Chinese-Australians and the First World War’, Sabretache, 53 (4), 15.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Heidi Zogbaum (2004) Kisch in Australia — The Untold Story (Melbourne: Scribe).

    Google Scholar 

  32. Antonia Finnane (1999) Far from Where? Jewish Journeys from Shanghai to Australia (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  33. See Mark Hearn (2007) ‘Cultivating an Australian Sentiment: John Christian Watson’s Narrative of White Nationalism’, National Identities, 9 (4), 351–68;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Mark Hearn (2013) ‘Bound with the Empire: Narratives of Race, Nation, and Empire in the Australian Labor Party’s Defence Policy, 1901–21’, War & Society, 32 (2), 95–115; and

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Neville Meaney (1995) ‘The End of “White Australia” and Australia’s Changing Perceptions of Asia, 1945–1990’, Australian Journal of International Affairs, 49 (2), 171–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Gwenda Tavan (2005) The Long Slow Death of White Australia (Melbourne: Scribe).

    Google Scholar 

  37. İçduygu et al., What Is the Matter with Citizenship?’; and Fuat Keyman and Ahmet İçduygu (eds) (2005) Citizenship in a Global World: European Questions and Turkish Experiences (London: Routledge).

    Google Scholar 

  38. See Nimet Beriker-Atiyas (1997) ‘The Kurdish Conflict in Turkey: Issues, Parties and Prospects’, Security Dialogue, 28 (4), 439–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Hakan Yavuz (1996) ‘Turkey’s Imagined Enemies: Kurds and Islamists’, The World Today, 52 (4) (April), 99–101.

    Google Scholar 

  40. For a review of many of the key background and implementation issues in Australian multiculturalism, see Andrew Jakubowicz and Chris Ho (eds) (2013) ‘For Those Who’ve Come Across the Seas …’: Australian Multicultural Theory Policy and Practice (Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing).

    Google Scholar 

  41. John Pasquerelli (1998) The Pauline Hanson Story by the Man Who Knows (Sydney: New Holland Publishers).

    Google Scholar 

  42. Andrew Jakubowicz (2012) ‘Racism, Anti-Racism and Australian Social Research: A Case-Study in Recovering Socially-Useful Knowledge’, http://andrewjakubowicz.com/publications/antiracisml998, accessed 28 November 2014.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Michâlis S. Michael (2009) ‘Australia’s Handling of Tensions between Islam and the West under the Howard Government’, Asian Journal of Political Science, 17 (1), 45–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Andrew Jakubowicz (2011) ‘Chinese Walls: Australian Multiculturalism and the Necessity for Human Rights’, Journal of Intercultural Studies, 32 (6), 691–706.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Maria Vamvakinou (Chair) (2013) Inquiry into Migration and Multiculturalism in Australia, Joint Standing Committee on Migration, Parliament of Australia (Canberra: March).

    Google Scholar 

  46. See Claudia Bell (2013) ‘Pacifists and Partygoers? Young Antipodeans Visiting Gallipoli War Sites’, in Irena Ateljevic, Nigel Morgan and Annette Pritchard (eds), The Critical Turn in Tourism Studies: Creating an Academy of Hope (London: Routledge), 179;

    Google Scholar 

  47. Mervyn F. Bendle (2009) ‘Gallipoli: Second Front in the History Wars’, Quadrant, 53 (6), 6;

    Google Scholar 

  48. Frank Bongiorno and Grant Mansfield (2008) Whose War Was It Anyway? Some Australian Historians and the Great War’, History Compass, 6 (1), 62–90;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Gerhard Fischer (2012) ‘The Governor-General’s Apology: Reflections on Anzac Day’, Cultural Studies Review, 18 (3), 220–39;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Peter Fitzsimons (2014) Gallipoli (Sydney: Random House);

    Google Scholar 

  51. Marek Haltof (1993) ‘In Quest of Self-Identity: Gallipoli, Mateship, and the Construction of Australian National Identity’, Journal of Popular Film and Television, 21 (1), 27–36;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Peter H. Hoffenberg (2001) ‘Landscape, Memory and the Australian War Experience, 1915–18’, Journal of Contemporary History, 36 (1), 111–31;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Leonie Lockstone-Binney, John Hall and Lutfi Atay (2013) ‘Exploring the Conceptual Boundaries of Diaspora and Battlefield Tourism: Australians’ Travel to the Gallipoli Battlefield, Turkey, as a Case Study’, Tourism Analysis, 18 (3), 297–311;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Matt McDonald (2010) ‘“Lest We Forget”: The Politics of Memory and Australian Military Intervention’, International Political Sociology, 4 (3), 287–302;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Mark McKenna and Stuart Ward (2007) ‘“It Was Really Moving, Mate”: The Gallipoli Pilgrimage and Sentimental Nationalism in Australia’, Australian Historical Studies, 38 (129), 141–51;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Hank Nelson (1997) ‘Gallipoli, Kokoda and the Making of National Identity’, Journal of Australian Studies, 21 (53), 157–69;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Nick Osbaldiston and Theresa Petray (2011) ‘The Role of Horror and Dread in the Sacred Experience’, Tourist Studies, 11 (2), 175–90;

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Lynette Russell (2012) ‘Remembering Places Never Visited: Connections and Context in Imagined and Imaginary Landscapes’, Journal of Historical Archaeology, 16 (2), 401–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Copyright information

© 2015 Andrew Jakubowicz and Ahmet İçduygu

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Jakubowicz, A., İçduygu, A. (2015). After Gallipoli: Empire, Nation and Diversity in Multicultural Turkey and Australia. In: Michael, M.S. (eds) Reconciling Cultural and Political Identities in a Globalized World. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-49315-6_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics