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Measuring Change

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Handbook of Cardiovascular Behavioral Medicine

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Abstract

We present mixed-effects regression analysis as a way to examine change over time in a descriptive and illustrative way without equations. Beginning with concepts from ordinary regression, we discuss intention to treat and review some antiquated methods as principles for examining repeated measures. We introduce mixed-effects regression as a method for analyzing repeated measures data from randomized clinical trials and data from longitudinal observational studies. Using several examples, we illustrate mixed-effects regression as a flexible technique for incorporating time-invariant and time-varying measures in analyses using centered variables for ease of the interpretation. We use publicly available epidemiological data to illustrate change in mean arterial pressure (MAP) in adults. Among examples provided, we illustrate ways to interpret change in multivariable analyses of MAP, differences in changes in MAP, differences in rates of change in MAP, and change in a dichotomous outcome. These examples are intended to guide analysts in understanding and interpreting repeated measures analyses.

Gregory Dore: deceased.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratory of Epidemiology and Population Sciences, National Institute on Aging Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Alan B. Zonderman, Gregory Dore & Nicolle A. Mode

Authors
  1. Alan B. Zonderman
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  2. Gregory Dore
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  3. Nicolle A. Mode
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alan B. Zonderman .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Shari R. Waldstein

  2. Department of Medical and Clinical Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands

    Willem J. Kop

  3. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA

    Edward C. Suarez

  4. Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA

    William R. Lovallo

  5. Division of Gerontology Geriatrics and Palliative Medicine Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Leslie I. Katzel

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© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature

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Zonderman, A.B., Dore, G., Mode, N.A. (2022). Measuring Change. In: Waldstein, S.R., Kop, W.J., Suarez, E.C., Lovallo, W.R., Katzel, L.I. (eds) Handbook of Cardiovascular Behavioral Medicine. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-85960-6_60

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