Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

A Biological/Genetic Perspective: The Addicted Brain

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Adolescent Substance Abuse

Part of the book series: Issue in Children’s and Families’ Lives ((IICL,volume 9))

  • 2295 Accesses

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 199.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Integrative guide for the 1991 CBCL 14–18, YSR, and TRF profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adriani, W., Spijker, S., Deroche-Gamonet, V., Laviola, G., Le Moal, M., Smit, A. B., et al (2003). Evidence for enhanced neurobehavioral vulnerability to nicotine during periadolescence in rats. Journal of Neuroscience, 23(11), 4712–4716.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aizenstein, M. L., Segal, D. S., & Kuczenski, R. (1990). Repeated amphetamine and fencamfamine: Sensitization and reciprocal cross-sensitization. Neuropsychopharmacology, 3, 283–290.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andersen, S. L., & Navalta, C. P. (2004). Altering the course of neurodevelopment: A framework for understanding the enduring effects of psychotropic drugs. International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 22, 423–440.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anthony, J. C., Warner, L. A., & Kessler, R. C. (1994). Comparative epidemiology of dependence on tobacco, alcohol, controlled substances, and inhalants: Basic findings from the National Comorbidity Survey. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 2, 244–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arbeit, M. L., Nicklas, T. A., Frank, G. C., Webber, L. S., Miner, M. H., & Berenson, G. S. (1988). Caffeine intakes of children from a biracial population: The Bogalusa heart study. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 88(4), 466–471.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arria, A. M., Caldeira, K. M., O’Grady, K. E., Vincent, K. B., Johnson, E. P., & Wish, E. D. (2008). Nonmedical use of prescription stimulants among college students: Associations with attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder and polydrug use. Pharmacotherapy, 28(2), 156–169.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bada, H. S., Das, A., Bauer, C. R., Shankaran, S., Lester, B., Wright, L. L., et al (2002). Gestational cocaine exposure and intrauterine growth: Maternal lifestyle study. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 100(5 Pt. 1), 916–924.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1991). The ecological validity of laboratory and analogue assessment methods of ADHD symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 19(2), 149–178.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barone, J. J., & Roberts, H. R. (1996). Caffeine consumption. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 34(1), 119–129.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bech, B. H., Nohr, E. A., Vaeth, M., Henriksen, T. B., & Olsen, J. (2005). Coffee and fetal death: A cohort study with prospective data. American Journal of Epidemiology, 162(10), 983–990.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benowitz, N. L. (1990). Clinical pharmacology of caffeine. Annual Review of Medicine, 41, 277–288.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berkowitz, R. L., Coustan, D. R., & Mochizuki, T. K. (1998). Handbook for prescribing medication during pregnancy. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein, G. A., Carroll, M. E., Dean, N. W., Crosby, R. D., Perwien, A. R., & Benowitz, N. L. (1998). Caffeine withdrawal in normal school-age children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 858–865.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bertrand, J., Floyd, R. L., Weber, M. K., O’Connor, M. J., Riley, E., Johnson, K. A.et al, . (2004). National Task Force on fetal alcohol syndrome/fetal alcohol effects. Fetal alcohol syndrome: Guidelines for referral and diagnosis. Screening and brief intervention. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Wilens, T., Mick, E., Faraone, S. V., Weber, W., Curtis, S.et al, . (1997). Is ADHD a risk factor for psychoactive substance use disorders? Findings from a four-year prospective follow-up study. Journal of the American Academy Child Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(1), 21–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Wilens, T., Mick, E., Spencer, T., & Faraone, S. V. (1999). Pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder reduces risk for substance use disorder. Pediatrics, 104(2), e20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradley, C. (1937). The behavior of children receiving benzedrine. American Journal of Psychiatry, 94, 577–585.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brandon, C. L., Marinelli, M., Baker, L. K., & White, F. J. (2001). Enhanced reactivity and vulnerability to cocaine following methylphenidate treatment in adolescent rats. Neuropsychopharmacology, 25, 651–661.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brazier, J. L. & Salle, B. (1981). Conversion of theophylline to caffeine by the human fetus. Seminars in Perinatology, 5, 315–320.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brazier, J. L., Ritter, J., Berland, M., Khenfer, D., & Faucon, G. (1983). Pharmacokinetics of caffeine during and after pregnancy. Developmental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 6(5), 315–322.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Briggs, G. G., Freeman, R. K., & Yaffe, S. J. (1998). Drugs in pregnancy and lactation. 4th ed. Baltimore, MD: Wilkins & Wilkins.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, S. A., & Tapert, S. F. (2004). Adolescence and the trajectory of alcohol use: Basic to clinical studies. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 234–244.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cargiulo, T. (2007). Understanding the health impact of alcohol dependence. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 64(5 Suppl. 3), S5–S11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., & Rapoport, J. L. (2002). Effects of caffeine on development and behavior in infancy and childhood: A review of the published literature. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 40(9), 1235–1242.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caster, J. M., Walker, Q. D., & Kuhn, C. M. (2007). A single high dose of cocaine induces differential sensitization to specific behaviors across adolescence. Psychopharmacology, (Berl), 193(2), 247–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP). (1997). Perspectives in disease prevention and health promotion, smoking-attributable mortality and years of potential life lost-United States, 1984. (Morbidity and mortality weekly report [serial online] 46, 441–451). Retrieved January 15, 2008, from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00047690.htm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control & Prevention (CDCP). (2002). PRAMS Surveillance Report. Retrieved December 11, 2007, from http://www.cdc.gov/prams/2002PRAMSSurvReport/.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP). (2004). Frequently asked questions: Fetal alcohol syndrome. Retrieved December 11, 2007, from http://www.cdc.gov/NCBDDD/fas/faqs.htm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP). (2005). Annual smoking-attirbutable mortality, years of potential life lost, and productivity losses – United States, 1997–2001. (Morbidity and mortality weekly report [serial online] 54(25), 625–628). Retrieved December 11, 2007, from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5425a1.htm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chaloupka, F. J., & Johnston, L. D. (2007). Bridging the gap: Research informing practice and policy for healthy youth behavior. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 33(Suppl. 4), S147–S161.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, R. A., Taylor, J. R., & Potenza, M. N. (2003). Developmental neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence: A critical period of addiction vulnerability. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(6), 1041–1052.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charatan, F. (2006). FDA committee votes for warning labels on stimulant drugs. British Medical Journal, 332(7538), 380.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Charness, M. E., Hu, G., Edwards, R. H., & Querimit, L. A. (1993). Ethanol increases delta-opioid receptor gene expression in neuronal cell lines. Molecular Pharmacology, 44(6), 1119–1127.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chase, T. D., Carrey, N., Brown, R. E., & Wilkinson, M. (2005a). Methylphenidate regulates c-fos and fosB expression in multiple regions of the immature rat brain. Brain Research, Developmental Brain Research, 156(1), 1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chase, T. D., Carrey, N., Brown, R. E., & Wilkinson, M. (2005b). Methylphenidate differentially regulates c-fos and fosB expression in the developing rat striatum. Brain Research, Developmental Brain Research, 157(2), 181–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chase, T., Carrey, N., Soo, E., & Wilkinson, M. (2007). Methylphenidate regulates activity regulated cytoskeletal associated but not brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene expression in the developing rat striatum. Neuroscience, 144(3), 969–984.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colby, S. M., Tiffany, S. T., Shiffman, S., & Niaura, R. S. (2000). Are adolescent smokers dependent on nicotine? A review of the evidence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 59(Suppl. 1), S83–S95.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conners, C. K., Sitarenios, G., Parker, J. D., & Epstein, J. N. (1998). The revised Conners’ parent rating scale (CPRS-R): Factor structure, reliability, and criterion validity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26(4), 257–268.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cornelius, M. D., Leech, S. L., Goldschmidt, L., & Day, N. L. (2000). Prenatal tobacco exposure: Is it a risk factor for early tobacco experimentation? Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 2(1), 45–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crews, F., He, J., & Hodge, C. (2007). Adolescent cortical development: A critical period of vulnerability for addiction. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 86(2), 189–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crews, F. T., Mdzinarishvili, A., Kim, D., He, J., & Nixon, R. (2006). Neurogenesis in adolescent brain is potently inhibited by ethanol. Neuroscience, 137(2), 437–445.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daly, J. W., & Fredholm, B. B. (1998). Caffeine – An atypical drug of dependence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 51(1–2), 199–206.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Day, N. L., Richardson, G. A., Goldschmidt, L., & Cornelius, M. D. (2000). Effects of prenatal tobacco exposure on preschoolers’ behavior. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 21(3), 180–188.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeBellis, M. D., Clark, D. B., Beers, S. R., Soloff, P. H., Boring, A. M., Hall, J.et al, . (2000). Hippocampal volume in adolescent-onset alcohol use disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(5), 820–821.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeBellis, M. D., Narasimhan, A., Thatcher, D. L., Keshaven, M. S., Soloff, P., & Clark, D. B. (2005). Prefrontal cortex, thalamus, and cerebellar volumes in adolescents and young adults with adolescent-onset alcohol use disorders and comorbid mental disorders. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 29(9), 1590–1600.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deitrich, R. A., Dunwiddie, T. V., Harris, R. A., & Erwin, V. G. (1989). Mechanism of action of ethanol: Initial central nervous system actions. Pharmacological Reviews, 41, 489–537.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., Fletcher, K., O’Loughlin, J., Pbert, L., Ockene, J.et al, . (2007). Symptoms of tobacco dependence after brief intermittent use: The development and assessment of nicotine dependence in youth-2 study. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 161, 704–710.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dumas, M., Gouyon, J. B., Tenenbaum, D., Michiels, Y., Escousse, A., & Alison, M. (1982). Systematic determination of caffeine plasma concentrations at birth in preterm and full term infants. Developmental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 4(Suppl.), 182–186.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Efron, D., Jarman, F. C., & Barker, M. J. (1998). Child and parent perceptions of stimulant medication treatment in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 34(3), 288–292.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elkins, R., Rapoport, J. L., Zahn, T. P., Buchsbaum, M. S., Weingartner, H., Kopin, I. J.et al, . (1981). Acute effects of caffeine in normal prepubertal boys. American Journal of Psychiatry, 138, 178–183.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eskenazi, B. & Castorina, R. (1999). Association of prenatal maternal or postnatal environmental tobacco smoke exposure and neurodevelopmental and behavioral problems in children. Environmental Health Perspectives, 107, 991–1000.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faden, V.B., & Graubard, B.I. (2000). Maternal substance use during pregnancy and developmental outcome at age three. Journal of Substance Abuse, 12(4), 329–340.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Faraday, M. M., Elliott, B. M., Phillips, J. M., & Grunberg, N. E. (2003). Adolescent and adult male rats differ in sensitivity to nicotine’s activity effects. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 74(4), 917–931.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Feldman, R. S., Meyer, J. S., & Quenzer, L. F. (1997). Principles of neuropsychopharmacology. Sutherland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D. M., Lynskey, M. T., & Horwood, L. J. (1994). Childhood exposure to alcohol and adolescent drinking patterns. Addiction, 89(8), 1007–1016.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferre, S., Fuxe, K., von Euler, G., Johansson, B., & Fredholm, B. B. (1992). Adenosine-dopamine interactions in the brain. Neuroscience, 51(3), 501–512.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ferre, S., von Euler, G., Johansson, B., Fredholm, B. B., & Fuxe, K. (1991). Stimulation of high-affinity adenosine A2 receptors decreases the affinity of dopamine D2 receptors in rat striatal membranes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 88(16), 7238–7241.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frary, C. D., Johnson, R. K., & Wang, M. Q. (2005). Food sources and intakes of caffeine in the diets of persons in the United States. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 105(1), 110–113.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fredericks, E. M., & Kollins, S. H. (2004). Assessing methylphenidate preference in ADHD patients using a choice procedure. Psychopharmacology, 175, 391–398.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fredericks, E. M., & Kollins, S. H. (2005). A pilot study of methylphenidate preference assessment in children diagnosed with ADHD. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 15(5), 729–741.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fredholm, B. B., Bättig, K., HolmĂ©n, J., Nehlig, A., & Zvartau, E. E. (1999). Actions of caffeine in the brain with special reference to factors that contribute to its widespread use. Pharmacological Reviews, 51(1), 83–133.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fried, P. A., & Watkinson, B. (1990). 36- and 48-month neurobehavioral follow-up of children prenatally exposed to marijuana, cigarettes, and alcohol. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 11(2), 49–58.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fried, P. A., & Watkinson, B. (2001). Differential effects on facets of attention in adolescents prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marijuana. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 23(5), 421–430.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galvan, A., Hare, T. A., Parra, C. E., Penn, J., Voss, H., Glover, G.et al, . (2006). Earlier development of the accumbens relative to orbitofrontal cortex might underlie risk-taking behavior in adolescents. Journal of Neuroscience, 26(25), 6885–6892.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garland, M. (1998). Pharmacology of drug transfer across the placenta: Substance use in pregnancy. Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America, 25(1), 21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garrett, B. E., & Griffiths, R. R. (1996). The role of dopamine in the behavioral effects of caffeine in animals and humans. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 57(3), 533–541.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gaytan, O., Yang, P., Swann, A., & Dafny, N. (2000). Diurnal differences in sensitization to methylphenidate. Brain Research, 846, 24–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • George, L., Granath, F., Johansson, A. L., Olander, B., & Cnattingius, S. (2006). Risks of repeated miscarriage. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 20(2), 119–126.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giannelli, M., Doyle, P., Roman, E., Pelerin, M., & Hermon, C. (2003). The effect of caffeine consumption and nausea on the risk of miscarriage. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 17(4), 316–323.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ginzel, K. H., Maritz, G. S., Marks, D. F., Neuberger, M., Pauly, J. R., Polito, J. R.et al, . (2007). Critical review: Nicotine for the fetus, the infant and the adolescent? Journal of Health Psychology, 12(2), 215–224.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glantz, M. D., & Chambers, J. C. (2006). Prenatal drug exposure effects on subsequent vulnerability to drug abuse. Development & Psychopathology, 18(3), 893–922.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, L. S., Hardman, J. G., Limbird, L. E., & Gilman, A. G. (2001). Goodman & Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 10th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, B. F., & Dawson, D. F. (1997). Age of onset and alcohol use and its association with DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence: Results of the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiological Survey. Journal of Substance Abuse, 9, 103–110.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grobin, A. C., Matthews, D. B., Devaud, L. L., & Morrow, A. L. (1998). The role of GABAA receptors in the acute and chronic effects of ethanol. Psychopharmacology, 139, 2–19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grund, T., Teuchert-Noodt, G., Busche, A., Neddens, J., Brummelte, S., Moll, G. H.et al, . (2007). Administration of oral methylphenidate during adolescence prevents suppressive development of dopamine projections into prefrontal cortex and amygdala after an early pharmacological challenge in gerbils. Brain Research, 1176, 124–132.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guerriero, R. M., Hayes, M. M., Dhaliwal, S. K., Ren, J. Q., & Kosofsky, B. E. (2006). Preadolescent methylphenidate versus cocaine treatment differ in the expression of cocaine-induced locomotor sensitization during adolescence and adulthood. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 1171–1180.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hardman, J. G., Limbird, L. E., Molinoff, P. B., Ruddon, R. W., & Goodman, A. G. (Eds.). (1996). Goodman & Gilaman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. New York: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hawken, C. M., Brown, R. E., Carrey, N., & Wilkinson, M. (2004). Long-term methylphenidate treatment down-regulates c-fos in the striatum of male CD-1 mice. Neuroreport, 15(6), 1045–1048.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hellstrom-Lindahl, E., Seiger, A., Kjaeldgaard, A., & Nordberg, A. (2001). Nicotine-induced alterations in the expression of receptors in primary culture from human prenatal brain. Neuroscience, 105(3), 527–534.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henningfield, J. E., & Griffiths, R. R. (1981). Cigarette smoking and subjective response: Effects of d-amphetamine. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 30, 497–505.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henningfield, J. E., Johnson, R. E., Jasinski, D. R., & Bozarth, M. A. (1987). Clinical procedures for the assessment of abuse potential (pp. 573–590). Berlin: Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, J. R., & Hale, K. L. (1998). Behavioral effects of caffeine and other methylxanthines on children. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 6, 87–95.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, J. R., & Oliveto, A. H. (1997). A systematic survey of caffeine intake in Vermont. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 5(4), 393–398.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • James, J. E. (1991). Caffeine and Health. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jasinski, D. R., Johnson, R. E., & Henningfield, J. E. (1984). Abuse liability assessment in human subjects. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 5, 196–200.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, B. A., Roache, J. D., Javors, M. A., DiClemente, C. C., Cloninger, C. R., Prihoda, T. J.et al, . (2000). Ondansetron for reduction of drinking among biologically predisposed alcoholic patients: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association, 284(8), 963–971.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., & Bachman, J. G. (2003). Monitoring the future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2002. National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1, 386–391.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenbert, J. E. (2007). The Monitoring the Future Study. Retrieved December 15, 2007, from http://www.monitoringthefuturestudy.org/data.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, H. E., & Griffiths, R. R. (2003). Oral caffeine maintenance potentiates the reinforcing and stimulant subjective effects of intravenous nicotine in cigarette smokers. Psychopharmacology, 165, 280–290.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Julien, R. M. (2001). A primer of drug action, 9th ed. New York: Worth Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalivas, P. W., Sorg, B. A., & Hooks, M. S. (1993). The pharmacology and neural circuitry of sensitization to psychostimulants. Behavioral Pharmacology, 4, 315–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., & Chen, K. (2000). Extent of smoking and nicotine dependence in the United States: 1991–1993. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 2(3), 263–274.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., Schaffran, C., Griesler, P., Samuolis, J., Davies, M., & Galanti, R. (2005). On the measurement of nicotine dependence in adolescence: Comparisons of the mFTQ and a DSM-IV-based scale. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 30(4), 319–332.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, D. B., Wu, P., & Davies, M. (1994). Maternal smoking during pregnancy and smoking by adolescent daughters. American Journal of Public Health, 84(9), 1407–1413.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, T. H., Foltin, R. W., & Fischman, M. W. (1991). Effects of repeated amphetamine exposure on multiple measures of human behavior. Pharmacology Biochemistry & Behavior, 38, 417–426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelly, T. H., Robbins, G., Martin, C. A., Fillmore, M. T., Lane, S. D., Harrington, N. G.et al, . (2006). Individual differences in drug abuse vulnerability: d-amphetamine and sensation-seeking status. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 189(1), 17–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, D. A., Natanblut, S. L., Wilkenfeld, J. P., Lorraine, C. C., Mayl, S. L., Bernstien, I. B. G.et al, . (1997). Nicotine addiction: A pediatric disease. Journal of Pediatrics, 130(4), 518–524.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein, R. G., Abikoff, H., Klass, E., Ganeles, D., Seese, L. M., & Pollack, S. (1997). Clinical efficacy of methylphenidate in conduct disorder with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54(12), 1073–1080.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein-Schwartz, W. (2002). Abuse and toxicity of methylphenidate. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 14, 219–223.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Knutti, R., Rothweiler, H., & Schlatter, C. (1982). The effect of pregnancy on the pharmacokinetics of caffeine. Archives of Toxicology Supplement, 5, 187–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kopstein, A. (2001). Tobacco use in America: Findings from the 1999 National Household Survey on drug abuse. (Analytic series: A-15, DHHS Publication N. SMA 02-3622). Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kota, D., & Martin, B. R. (2007). Nicotine dependence and reward differ between adolescent and adult male mice. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 322(1), 399–401.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krasnegor, N. A., Gray, D. B., & Thompson, T. (1986). Advances in behavioral pharmacology, Vol. 5: Developmental behavioral pharmacology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kreek, M. J., & Koob, G. F. (1998). Drug dependence: Stress and dysregulation of reward pathways. Drug and Dependence, 51, 23–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuczenski, R., & Segal, D. S. (2001). Locomotor effects of acute and repeated threshold doses of amphetamine and methylphenidate: Relative roles of dopamine and norepinephrine. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 296, 876–883.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuczenski, R., & Segal, D. S. (2002, August 15). Exposure of adolescent rats to oral methylphenidate: Preferential effects on extracellular norepinephrine and absence of sensitization and cross-sensitization to methamphetamine. Journal of Neuroscience, 22(16), 7264–7271.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lambert, N. M., & Hartsough, C. S. (1998). Prospective study of tobacco smoking and substance dependencies among samples of ADHD and non-ADHD participants. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31(6), 533–544.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Law, K. L., Stroud, L. R., LaGasse, L. L., Niaura, R., Liu, J., & Lester, B. M. (2003). Smoking during pregnancy and newborn neurobehavior. Pediatrics, 111(6 Pt. 1), 1318–1323.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leon, M. R. (2000). Effects of caffeine on cognitive, psychomotor, and affective performance of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders, 4, 27–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lesch, K. P. (2005). Alcohol dependence and gene x environment interaction in emotion regulation: Is serotonin the link? European Journal of Pharmacology, 526(1–3), 113–124.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, E. D., Rezvani, A. H., Montoya, D., Rose, J. E., & Swartzwelder, H. S. (2003). Adolescent-onset nicotine self-administration modeled in female rats. Psychopharmacology, 169(2), 141–149.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leviton, A. (1992). Behavioral correlates of caffeine consumption by children. Clinical Pediatrics, 31(12), 742–750.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leviton, A., & Cowan, L. (2002). A review of the literature relating caffeine consumption by women to their risk of reproductive hazards. Food & Chemical Toxicology, 40(9), 1271–1310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, X., Koren, A. O., Yee, S. K., Pechnick, R. N., Poland, R. E., & London, E. D. (2003). Self-administration of 5-iodo-A-85380, a beta-2 selective nicotinic receptor ligand by operantly trained rats. Neuroreports, 14, 1503–1505.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malinauskas, B. M., Aeby, V. G., Overton, R. F., Carpenter-Aeby, T., & Barber-Heidal, K. (2007, October 31). A survey of energy drink consumption patterns among college students. Nutrition Journal, 6, 35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. A., Guenther, G., Bingcang, C., Rayens, M. K., & Kelly, T. H. (2007). Measurement of the subjective effects of methylphenidate in 11-to-15 year old children with the attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 17(1), 63–73.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. A., Kelly, T. H., Rayens, M. K., Brogli, B., Himelreich, K., Brenzel, A.et al, . (2004). Sensation seeking and symptoms of disruptive disorder: Association with nicotine, alcohol and marijuana use in early-and mid-adolescents. Psychological Reports, 94(3 Pt. 1), 75–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, W. R., Sloan, J. W., Sapira, J. D., & Jasinski, D. R. (1971). Physiologic, subjective, and behavioral effects of amphetamine, methamphetamine, ephedrine, phenmetrazine, and methylphenidate in man. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 12, 245–258.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maskos, U., Molles, B. E., Pons, S., Besson, M., Guiard, B. P., Guilloux, J. P.et al, . (2005). Nicotine reinforcement and cognition restored by targeted expression of nicotinic receptors. Nature, 436, 103–107.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, S. E., Teter, C. J., & Boyd, C. J. (2004a). The use, misuse and diversion of prescription stimulants among middle and high school students. Substance Use & Misuse, 39(7), 1095–1116.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, S. E., Teter, C. J., & Boyd, C. J. (2006a). Medical use, illicit use and diversion of prescription stimulant medication. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 38(1), 43–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, S. E., Teter, C. J., & Boyd, C. J. (2006b). Medical use, illicit use and diversion of abusable prescription drugs. Journal of American College Health, 54(5), 269–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, S. E., Teter, C. J., Boyd, C. J., & Guthrie, S. K. (2004b). Prevalence and correlates of illicit methylphenidate use among 8th, 10th, and 12th grade students in the United States, 2001. Journal of Adolescent Health, 35(6), 501–504.

    Google Scholar 

  • Milberger, S., Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Chen, L., & Jones, J. (1997). ADHD is associated with early initiation of cigarette smoking in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(1), 37–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mokdad, A. H., Marks, J. S., Stroup, D. F., & Gerberding, J. L. (2004). Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 291(10), 1238–1245.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moll, G. H., Hause, S., Ruether, E., Rothenberger, A., & Huether, G. (2001). Early methylphenidate administration to young rats causes a persistent reduction in the density of striatal dopamine transporters. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 11(1), 15–24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, K. J., Stults, V. J., & Zabik, M. E. (1982). Amount and dietary sources of caffeine and saccharin intake by individuals ages 5 to 18 years. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 2(4), 296–307.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muneoka, K., Ogawa, T., Kamei, K., Mimura, Y., Kato, H., & Takigawa, M. (2001). Nicotine exposure during pregnancy is a factor which influences serotonin transporter density in the rat brain. European Journal of Pharmacology, 411(3), 279–282.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myllynen, P., Pasanen, M., & Pelkonen, O. (2005). Human placenta: A human organ for developmental toxicology research and biomonitoring. Placenta, 26(5), 361–371.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nasello, A. G., & Ramirez, O. A. (1978a). Open field and Lashley III maze behavior of the offspring of amphetamine treated rats. Psychopharmacology, 58, 171–173.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nasello, A. G., & Ramirez, O. A. (1978b). Brain catecholamines metabolism in the offspring of amphetamine treated rats. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 9, 17–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nasello, A. G., Astrada, A. C., & Ramirez, O. A. (1974). Effects on the acquisition of conditioned avoidance responses and seizure threshold in the offspring of amphetamine treated gravid rats. Psychopharmacology, 40, 25–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nasif, F. J., Cuadra, G. R., & Ramirez, O. A. (1999). Permanent alteration of central noradrenergic system by prenatally administered amphetamine. Developmental Brain Research, 112, 181–188.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). (2003). Traffic Safety Facts 2002: Alcohol (DOT Publication No. HS-809–606). Washington, DC: NHTSA, National Center for Statistics & Analysis. Retrieved March 27, 2008, from http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/NCSA/TSF2002/2002alcfacts.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) (2004–2005). Alcohol and development in youth – A multidisciplinary overview. Alcohol Research & Health, 28(3).

    Google Scholar 

  • Nichter, M., Nichter, M., Thompson, P. J., Shiffman, S., & Moscicki, A. B. (2002). Using qualitative research to inform survey development on nicotine dependence among adolescents. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 68(Suppl. 1), S41–S56.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Okoli, C. T. C., Kelly, T. H., & Hahn, E. L. (2007). Secondhand smoke and nicotine exposure: A brief review. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 1977–1988.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Loughlin, J., DiFranza, J., Tyndale, R. F., Meshefedjian, G., McMillan-Davey, E., Clarke, P. B. et al (2003). Nicotine-dependence symptoms are associated with smoking frequency in adolescents. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25(3), 219–225.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orbeta, R. L., Overpeck, M. D., Ramcharran, D., Kogan, M. D., & Ledsky, R. (2006). High caffeine intake in adolescents: Associations with difficulty sleeping and feeling tired in the morning. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 451–453.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ostrea, E. M., Mantaring, J. B., III, & Silvestre, M. A. (2004). Drugs that affect the fetus and newborn infant via the placenta or breast milk. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 51, 539–579.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parsons, W. D., & Neims, A. H. (1981). Prolonged half-life of caffeine in healthy tem newborn infants. Journal of Pediatrics, 98(4), 640–641.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Picciotto, M. R., & Corrigall, W. A. (2002). Neuronal systems underlying behaviors related to nicotine addiction: Neural circuits and molecular genetics. Journal of Neuroscience, 22(9), 3338–3341.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Picciotto, M. R., Zoli, M., & Changeux, J. P. (1999). Use of knock-out mice to determine the molecular basics for the actions of nicotine. Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 1(Suppl. 2), S121–S125.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pidoplichko, V. I., Noguchi, J., Areola, O. O., Liang, Y., Peterson, J., Zhang, T.et al, . (2004). Nicotinic cholinergic synaptic mechanisms in the ventral tegmental area contribute to nicotine addiction. Learning and Memory, 11(1), 60–69.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pirie, P. L., Lando, H., Curry, S. J., McBride, C., & Grothaus, L. C. (2000). Tobacco, alcohol, and caffeine use and cessation in early pregnancy. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 18(1), 54–61

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pollak, C. P., & Bright, D. (2003). Caffeine consumption and weekly sleep patterns in US seventh-, eighth-, and ninth-graders. Pediatrics, 111, 42–46.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Poulin, C. (2007). From attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder to medical stimulant use to diversion of prescribed stimulants to non-medical stimulant use: Connecting the dots. Addiction, 102, 740–752.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ramirez, O. A., & Carrer, H. F. (1983). Noradrenergic modulation of neural transmission in the offspring of amphetamine treated rats. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 2, 766–769.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramirez, O. A., Carrer, H. F., & Nasello, A. G. (1979). Prenatal amphetamine exposure: Ovulation, sexual behavior and hypothalamic monoamine. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 11, 605–609.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport, J. L., Berg, C. J., Ismond, D. R., Zahn, T. P., & Neims, A. (1984). Behavioral effects of caffeine in children. Relationship between dietary choice and effects of caffeine challenge. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 1073–1079.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rapoport, J. L., Elkins, R., Neims, A., Zahn, T., & Berg, C. J. (1981). Behavioral and autonomic effects of caffeine in normal boys. Developmental Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 3, 74–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rasch, V. (2003). Cigarette, alcohol, and caffeine consumption: Risk factors for spontaneous abortion. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 82(2), 182–188.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rayburn, W. F., & Bogenschutz, M. P. (2004). Pharmacotherapy for pregnant women with addictions. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 191(6), 1885–1897.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson, S. A., & Tizabi, Y. (1994). Hyperactivity in the offspring of nicotine-treated rats: Role of the mesolimbic and nigrostriatal pathways. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 47(2), 331–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rush, C. R., Higgins, S. T., Vansickel, A. R., Stoops, W. W., Lile, J. A., & Glaser, P. E. (2005). Methlyphenidate increases cigarette smoking. Psychopharmacology (Bel), 181(4), 781–789.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salminen, O., Murphy, K. L., McIntosh, J. M., Drago, J., Marks, M. J., Collins, A. X.et al, . (2004). Subunit composition and pharmacology of two classes of striatal presynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors mediating dopamine release in mice. Molecular Pharmacology, 65, 1526–1535.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savitz, D. A., Chan, R. L., Herring, A. H., Howards, P. P., & Hartmann, K. E. (2008). Caffeine and miscarriage risk. Epidemiology, 19(1), 55–62.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheffler, R. M., Hinshaw, S. P., Modrek, S., & Levine, P. (2007). The global market for ADHD medications. Health Affairs, 26(2), 450–457.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schenk, S. & Izenwasser, S. (2002). Pretreatment with methylphenidate sensitizes rats to the reinforcing effects of cocaine. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 72(3), 651–657.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuckit, M. A. & Smith, T. L. (2004). Changes over time in the self-reported level of response to alcohol. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 39(5), 433–438.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sher, L. (2006). Functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of neurocognitve effects of alcohol use on adolescents and young adults. International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health, 18(1), 3–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slotkin, T. A. (2002). Nicotine and the adolescent brain: Insights from an animal model. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24(3), 369–384.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slotkin, T. A., Pinkerton, K. E., Auman, J. T., Qiaio, D., & Seidler, F. J. (2002). Perinatal exposure to environmental tobacco smoke upregulates nicotinic cholinergic receptors in monkey brain. Brain Research, Developmental Brain Research, 133(2), 175–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L. M., LaGasse, L. L., Derauf, C., Grant, P., Shah, R., Arria, A.et al, . (2006). The infant development, environment, and lifestyle study: Effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure, polydrug exposure, and poverty on intrauterine growth. Pediatrics, 118(3), 1149–1156.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sokol, R. J., Delaney-Black, V., Nordstrom, B. (2003). Fetal alcohol syndrome disorder. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290(22), 2996–2999.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solanto, M. V. (1998). Neuropsychopharmacology mechanisms of stimulant drug action in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A review and integration. Behavioural Brain Research, 94, 127–152.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soliman, M. A., Pedersen, J. A., Park, H., Castaneda-Jimenez, A., Stenstrom, M. K., & Suffet, I. H. (2007). Human pharmaceuticals, antioxidants, and plasticizers in wastewater treatment plant and water reclamation plant effluents. Water Environment Research, 79(2), 156–167.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Song, M., Wang, X. Y., Zhao, M., Wang, X. Y., Zhai, H. F., & Lu, L. (2007). Role of stress in acquisition of alcohol-conditioned place preference in adolescent and adult mice. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 31(12), 2001–2005.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sood, B., Delaney-Black, V., Covington, C., Nordstrom-Klee, B., Ager, J., Templin, T.et al, . (2001). Prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood behavior at age 6 and 7. Pediatrics, 108(2), e34.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spear, L. P. (2002). The adolescent brain and the college drinker: Biological basis of propensity to use and misuse alcohol. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, (Suppl. 14), 71–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spear, L. P. (2004). Adolescence and the trajectory of alcohol use: Introduction to part VI. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 202–205.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spear, N. E., & Molina, J. C. (2005). Fetal or infantile exposure to ethanol promotes ethanol ingestion in adolescence and adulthood: A theoretical review. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 29(6), 909–929.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, M. A., Krasowski, M., Leventhal, B. L., Phillips, W., & Bender, B. G. (1996). Behavioral and cognitive effects of methylxanthines. A meta-analysis of theophylline and caffeine. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 150, 284–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stoops, W. W., Lile, J. A., Robbins, C. G., Martin, C. A., Rush, C. R., & Kelly, T. H. (2007). The reinforcing, subject-rated, performance, and cardiovascular effects of d-amphetamine: Influence of sensation-seeking status. Addictive Behaviors, 32(6), 1177–1188.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Story, M., & Neumark-Sztainer, D. (1998). Diet and adolescent behavior: Is there a relationship. Adolescent Medicine, 9, 283–298.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sussman, S., Pentz, M.A., Spruijt-Metz, D., & Miller, T. (2006, June 9). Misuse of “study drugs”: Prevalence, consequences, and implications for policy. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention and Policy, 1, 15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, J. M., Gupta, S., Williams, L., Agler, D., Lerner, M., & Wigal, S. (2002a). Efficacy of a new pattern of methylphenidate for the treatment of ADHD: Effects on activity level in the classroom and on the playground. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(11), 1306–1314.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, J. M., Lerner, M., Wigal, T., Steinhoff, K., Greenhill, L., Posner, K.et al, . (2002b). The use of a laboratory school protocol to evaluate concepts about efficacy and side effects of new formulations of stimulant medications. Journal of Attention Disorders, 6(Suppl. 1), S73–S88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swartzwelder, H. S., Wilson, W. A., & Tayyeb, M. I. (1995). Age-dependent inhibition of long-term potentiation by ethanol in immature versus mature hippocampus. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 19(6), 1480–1485.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tapper, A. E., McKinney, S. L., Nashmi, R., Schwarz, J., Deshpande, P., Labarca, C.et al, . (2004). Nicotine activation of alpha4* receptors: Sufficient for reward, tolerance, and sensitization. Science, 306, 1029–1032.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tennant, F. S., & Detels, R. (1976). Relationship of alcohol, cigarette, and drug abuse in adulthood with alcohol, cigarette and coffee consumption in childhood. Preventive Medicine, 5, 70–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toro, R., Leonard, G., Lerner, J. V., Lerner, R. M., Perron, M., Pike, G. B.et al (2008). Prenatal exposure to maternal cigarette smoking and the adolescent cerebral cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33(5), 1019–1027.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Torres-Reveron, A. & Dow-Edwards, D. L. (2005). Repeated administration of methylphenidate in young, adolescent and mature rat affects the response to cocaine later in adulthood. Psychopharmacology (Berl), 181(1), 38–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trauth, J. A., McCook, E. C., Seidler, F. J., & Slotkin, T. A. (2000a). Modeling adolescent nicotine exposure: Effects on cholinergic systems in rat brain regions. Brain Research, 873, 18–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trauth, J. A., Seidler, F. J., & Slotkin, T. A. (2000b). Persistent and delayed behavioral changes after nicotine treatment in adolescent rats. Brain Research, 880(1–2), 167–172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsai, G. E., Ragan, P., Chang, R., Chen, S., Linnoila, M. I., & Coyle, J. T. (1998). Increased glutamatergic neurotransmission and oxidative stress after alcohol withdrawal. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155(6), 726–732.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Upadhyaya, H. P., Deas, D., & Brady, K. (2005a). A practical clinic approach to the treatment of nicotine dependence in adolescents. Clinical Perspectives, 44(9), 942–946.

    Google Scholar 

  • Upadhyaya, H. P., Deas, D., Brady, K. T., & Kruesi, M. (2002). Cigarette smoking and psychiatric comorbidity in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(11), 1294–1305.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Upadhyaya, H. P., Rose, K., Wang, W., O’Rourke, K., Sullivan, B., Deas, D.et al, . (2005b). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, medication treatment, and substance use patterns among adolescents and young adults. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 15(5), 799–809.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valek, M., Laslavić, B., & Laslavić, Z. (2004). Daily caffeine intake among Osijek high school students: Questionnaire study. Croatian Medical Journal, 45, 72–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Valvassori, S. S., Frey, B. N., Martins, M. R., Reus, G. Z., Schimidtz, F., Inacio, C. G.et al, . (2007). Sensitization and cross-sensitization after chronic treatment with methylphenidate in adolescent Wistar rats. Behavioral Pharmacology, 18, 205–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verheul, R., van den Brink, W., & Geerlings, P. (1999). A three-pathway psychobiological model of craving for alcohol. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 34(2), 197–222.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vermeiren, R., Schwab-Stone, M., Deboutte, D., Leckman, P. E., & Ruchkin, V. (2003). Violence exposure and substance use in adolescents: Findings from three countries. Pediatrics, 111, 535–540.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow, N. D., Wang, G., Fowler, J. S., Logan, J., Gerasimov, M., Maynard, L.et al, . (2001). Therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate significantly increase extracellular dopamine in the human brain. The Journal of Neuroscience, 21, RC121.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wafford, K. A., Burnett, D., Harris, R. A., & Whiting, P. J. (1993). GABAA receptor subunit expression and sensitivity to ethanol. Alcohol and Alcoholismt, (Suppl. 2), 327–330.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, F. A. & Anthony, J. C. (2002). From first drug use to drug dependence: Developmental periods of risk for dependence upon marijuana, cocaine, and alcohol. Neuropsychopharmacology, 26(4), 479–488.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wakschlag, L. S., Leventhal, B. L., Pine, D. S., Pickett, K. E., & Carter, A. S. (2006). Elucidating early mechanisms of developmental psychopathology: The case of prenatal smoking and disruptive behavior. Child Development, 77(4), 893–906.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, R. A., Redman, S., & Adamson, L. (1996). The accuracy of self-report of smoking status in pregnant women. Addictive Behaviors, 21(5), 675–679.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinberg, B. A. & Bealer, B. K. (2001). The world of caffeine. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westover, A. N., McBride, S., & Haley, R. W. (2007). Stroke in young adults who abuse amphetamines or cocaine. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(April), 495–502.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens, T. E., Biederman, J., Mick, E., Faraone, S. V., & Spencer, T. (1997). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with early onset substance use disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185(8), 475–482.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens, T. E., Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., & Gunawardene, S. (2003). Does stimulant therapy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder beget later substance abuse? A meta-analytic review of literature. Pediatrics, 111(1), 179–185.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilens, T. E., Gignac, M., Swezey, A., Monuteaux, M. C., & Biederman, J. (2006). Characteristics of adolescents and young adults with ADHD who divert or misuses their prescribed medications. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(4), 408–414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolraich, M. L., & Doffing, M. A. (2004). Pharmacokinetic considerations in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with methylphenidate. CNS Drugs, 18(4), 243–250.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu, Z., Seidler, F. J., Ali, S. F., Slikker, W., & Slotkin, T. A. (2001). Fetal and adolescent nicotine administration: Effects on CNS serotonergic systems. Brain Research, 914, 166–178.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, P.B., Swann, A.C., & Dafny, N. (2003, October 17). Chronic pretreatment with methylphenidate induces cross-sensitization with amphetamine. Life Sciences, 73(22), 2899–2891.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, T. A., Maldve, R. E., & Morrisett, R. A. (2006). Coincident signaling in mesolimbic structures underlying alcohol reinforcement. Biochemical Pharmacology, 72(8), 919–927.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zito, J. M., Safer, D. J., dosReis, S., Magder, L. S., Gardner, J. F., & Zarin, D. A. (1999). Psychotherapeutic medication patterns for youths with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 153(12), 1257–1263.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zuvekas, S. H., Vitiello, B., & Norquist, G. S. (2006). Recent trends in stimulant medication use among U.S. children. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(4), 579–585.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. Thomas H. Kelly
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alessandra N. Kazura
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Karen M. Lommel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Shanna Babalonis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Catherine A. Martin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. Behavioral Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, 40506, U.S.A.

    Carl Leukefeld

  2. Child & Family Agency of Southeastern, Hempstead St. 255, New London, 06320, U.S.A.

    Thomas P. Gullotta

  3. College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, 40536-0086, U.S.A.

    Michelle Staton-Tindall

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kelly, T., Kazura, A., Lommel, K., Babalonis, S., Martin, C. (2009). A Biological/Genetic Perspective: The Addicted Brain . In: Leukefeld, C., Gullotta, T., Staton-Tindall, M. (eds) Adolescent Substance Abuse. Issue in Children’s and Families’ Lives, vol 9. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09732-9_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation