Conclusion
Acomprehensive, mechanistic simulation of wildland fire and ecosystem dynamics across a landscape may not be possible because of computer limitations, inadequate research, inconsistent data, and extensive parameterization. Therefore empirical and stochastic approaches must be substituted for many mechanistic modules until research and technology improve. Unfortunately, nonmechanistic approaches limit the scope and applicability of spatial ecosystem process models. Ecosystem dynamics models need to be refined so that appropriate compartments that model fire spread and effects are explicitly represented in their structure. Landscape disturbance models need to simulate fire growth unconstrained by vegetation polygon delineations. Most important, these models must be designed in the context of the simulation objective to ensure that appropriate simulation modules are included.
The use of trade or firm names in this paper is for reader information and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or service. This paper was written and prepared by U.S. Government employees on official time, and therefore is in the public domain and not subject to copyright.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Aber, J.D., and Federer, C.A. 1992. A generalized, lumped-parameter model of photosynthesis, evapotranspiration, and net primary production in temperate and boreal forest ecosystems. Oecologia 92:463–474.
Ågren, G.I., and Axelsson, B. 1980. PT-A tree growth model. Ecol. Bull. (Stockholm) 32: 525–536.
Ågren, G.I., McMurtrie, R.E., Parton, W.J., Pastor, J., and Shugart, H.H. 1991. Stateof-the-art of models of production-decomposition linkages in conifer and grassland ecosystems. Ecol. Appl. 1(2):118–138.
Albini, F.A. 1976a. Computer-Based Models of Wildland Fire Behavior: A User’s Manual. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 68p.
Albini, F.A., and Reinhardt, E.D. 1995. Modeling ignition and burning rate of large woody natural fuels. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 5(2):81–91.
Albini, F.A., Brown, J.K., Reinhardt, E.D., and Ottmar, R.D. 1995. Calibration of a large fuel burnout model. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 5(3):173–192.
Albini, F.A., Amin, M.R., Hungerford, R.D., Frandsen, W.H., and Ryan, K.C. 1996. Models for fire-driven heat and moisture transport in soils. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-335. 16p.
Andersen, M. 1991. Mechanistic models for the seed shadows of wind-dispersed plants. The Am. Naturalist 137(4):476–497.
Anderson, D.G., Catchpole, E.A., DeMestre, N.J., and Parkes, T. 1982. Modeling the spread of grass fires. J. Austral. Math. Soc. (ser. B.) 23:451–466.
Anderson, H.E. 1969. Heat transfer and fire spread. Res. Pap. INT-69. Ogden, UT: USDA, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 20p.
Anderson, H.E. 1982. Aids to determining fuel models for estimating fire behavior. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-122. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forestry and Range Experimental Station. 22p.
Andrews, P.L. 1986. BEHAVE: Fire behavior prediction and fuel modeling system-BURN subsystem. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-194. 130p.
Andrews, P.L. 1990. Application of fire growth simulation models in fire management. In Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology, pp. 317–321. April 17–21, Ottawa, Canada. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC.
Arno, S.F., Simmerman, D.G., and Keane, R.E. 1985. Forest succession on four habitat types in western Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-177. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 74p.
Aston, A.R., and Gill, A.M. 1976. Coupled soil moisture, heat, and water vapor transfers under simulated fire conditions. Austral. J. Soil Res. 14:55–66.
Baker, W.L. 1989a. Effect of scale and spatial heterogeneity on fire-interval distributions. Can. J. For. Res. 19:700–706.
Baker, W. L. 1989b. A review of models of landscape change. Landscape Ecol. 2(2): 111–133.
Baker, W.L. 1992a. Effects of settlement and fire suppression on landscape structure. Ecology 73:1879–1887.
Baker, W.L. 1992b. The landscape ecology of large disturbances in the design and management of nature reserves. Landscape Ecol. 7(3):181–194.
Baker, W.L. 1993. Spatially heterogeneous multi-scale response of landscapes to fire suppression. Oikos 66:66–71.
Baker, W.L., Egbert, S.L., and Frazier, G.F. 1991. A spatial model for studying the effects of climatic change on the structure of landscapes subject to large disturbances. Ecol. Model. 56:109–125.
Ball, G.L., and Gimblett, R. 1992. Spatial dynamic emergent hierarchies simulation and assessment system. Ecol. Model. 62:107–121.
Band, L.E., Peterson, D.L., Running, S.W., Coughlan, J., Lanners, R., Dungan, J., and Nemani, R. 1991. Forest ecosystem processes at the watershed scale: basis for distributed simulation. Ecol. Model. 56:171–196.
Barrows, J.S., Sandberg, D.V., and Hart, J.D. 1977. Lightning fires in Northern Rocky Mountain forests. USDA Forest Service Final Report for Contract Grant 16-440-CA. On file, USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, P.O. Box 8089, Missoula, MT. 221p.
Bassow, S.L., Ford, E.D., and Kiester, A.R. 1990. A critique of carbon-based tree growth models. In Process Modeling of Forest Ggrowth Responses to Environmental Stress, eds. R.K. Dixon, R.S. Meldahl, G.A. Ruark, and W.G. Warren, pp. 50–57. Portland, OR: Timber Pres
Battaglia, M., and Sands, P.J. 1998. Process-based forest productivity models and their application in forest management. For. Ecol. Manag. 102:13–32.
Beer, T., and Enting, I.G. 1990. Fire spread and percolation modelling. Mathl. Comput. Model. 13(11):77–96.
Beven, K.J., and Kirkby, M.J. 1979. A physically based, variable contributing area model of basin hydrology. Hydrol. Sci. Bull. 24(1):43–69.
Bevins, C.D., and Andrews, P.L. 1994. The Loki software architecture for fire and ecosystem modeling: A tinker toy approach. In 12th Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology, pp. 252–260, October 26–28, Jekyll Island, GA. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC.
Bevins, C.D., Andrews, P.L., and Keane, R.E. 1995. Forest succession modelling using the Loki software architecture. Lesnictvi-Forestry 41(4):158–162.
Binley, A.M., Beven, K.J., Calver, A., and Watts, L.G. 1991. Changing responses in hydrology: Assessing the uncertainty in physically based model predictions. Water Resources Res. 27(6):1253–1261.
Blake, J.I., and Hoogenboom, G. 1988. A dynamic simulation of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) seedling establishment based upon carbon and water balances. Can. J. For. Res. 18:833–850.
Blyth, E.M., Dolman, A.J., and Noilhan, J. 1994. The effect of forest on mesoscale rainfall: An example from HAPEX-MOBILHY. J. Appl. Meteorol. 33(4):445–454.
Bolte, J.P., Fisher, J.A., and Ernst, D.H. 1993. An object-oriented, message-based environment for integrating continuous, event-driven and knowledge-based simulation. In Proceedings of Conference on Application of Advanced Information Technologies: Effective Management of Natural Resources, pp. 290–308, June 18-19, Spokane, WA American Society of Agricultural Engineers.
Bossel, H. 1991. Modeling forest dynamics: Moving from description to explanation. Forest Ecol. Manag. 42:129–142.
Bossel, H., and Schäfer, H. 1988. Eco-physiological dynamic simulation model of tree growth, carbon, and nitrogen dynamics. In Forest Simulation Systems: Proceedings of the IUFRO Conference, eds. L.C. Wensel, G.S. Biging, November 2–5, 420p. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources. pp. 121–122.
Botkin, Daniel B. 1993. Forest Dynamics: An Ecological Model. New York: Oxfor University Press.
Botkin, D.B., and Schenk, H.J. 1996. Review and analysis of JABOWA and related forest models and their use in climate change studies. NCASI Tech. Bull. 717. 62p.
Botkin, D.B., Janak, J.F., and Wallis, J.R. 1972. Some ecological consequences of a computer model of forest growth. J. Ecol. 60:849–872.
Boumans, R.M.J., and Sklar, F.H. 1990. A polygon-based spatial (PBS) model for simulating landscape change. Landscape Ecol. 4(2/3):83–97.
Boyce, R.B. 1985. Conifer germination and seedling establishment on burned and unburned seedbeds. MS thesis. University of Idaho, Moscow.
Boychuk, D., Perera, A.H., Ter-Mikaelian, M.T., Martell, D.L., and Li, C. 1997. Modelling the effect of spatial scale and correlated fire disturbances on forest age distribution. Ecol. Model. 95:143–162
Breyfogle, S., and Ferguson, S.A. 1996. User assessment of smoke-dispersion models for wildland biomass burning. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-379. 30p.
Brown, J.K. 1970. Ratios of surface area to volume for common fire fuels. For. Sci. 16:101–105.
Brown, J.K. 1981. Bulk densities of nonuniform surface fuels and their application to fire modeling. For. Sci. 27:667–683.
Brown, J.K., and Bevins, C.D. 1986. Surface fuel loadings and predicted fire behavior for vegetation types in the Northern Rocky Mountains. Res. Note INT-358. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 9p.
Brown, J.K., Marsden, M.A., Ryan, K.C., and Reinhardt. E.D. 1985. Predicting duff and woody fuel consumed by prescribed fire in the Northern Rocky Mountains. Res. Pap. INT-337. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 23p.
Burgan, R.E., and Rothermel, R.C. 1984. BEHAVE: Fire behavior prediction and fuel modeling system-FUEL subsystem. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-167. 126p.
Burton, P.J., and Urban, D.L. 1990. An overview of ZELIG, a family of individual-based gap models simulating forest succession. In Symposia Proceedings Vegetation Management: An Integrated Approach, E. Hamilton, (compiler), November, 14–16, pp. 92–96, Victoria, BC. Forestry Canada Pacific Forestry Centre FRDA Rep. 109.
Busing, R.T. 1991. A spatial model of forest dynamics. Veg. Sci. 92:167–179.
Campbell, G.S., Jungbauer, J.D., Bristow, K.L., and Hungerford, R.D. 1995. Soil temperature and water content beneath a surface fire. Soil Sci. 159(6):363–374.
Canham, C.D., and Marks, P.L. 1985. The response of woody plants to disturbance: patterns of establishment and growth. In The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics, pp. 197–216. S.T.A. Piclult and P.S. White, San Diego, CA: Academic Press
Catchpole, E.A., Alexander, M.E., and Gill, A.M. 1982. Elliptical fire perimeter and area intensity distributions. Can. J. For. Res. 22:968–972.
Cattelino, P.J., Noble, I.R., Slatyer, R.O., and Kessell, S.R. 1979. Predicting multiple pathways of plant succession. Environ. Manag. 3:41–50.
Chew, J.D. 1997. Simulating landscape patterns and processes at landscape scales. In Proceedings of the 11th Annual Symposium on Geographic Information Systems, pp. 287–291. Vancouver, B.C. GIS World Publications, Fort Collins, CO.
Cipollini, M.L., Wallace-Senft, D.A., and Whigham, D.F. 1994. A model of patch dynamics, seed dispersal, and sex ratio in the dioecious shrub Lindera benzoin (Lauraceae). J. Ecol. 82:621–633.
Clark, J.S., Fastie, C., Hurtt, G., Jackson, S.T., Johnson, C., King, G., Lewis, M., Lynch, J., Pacala, S., Prentice, C., Schupp, E.W., Webb, T., and Wyckoff, P. 1998. Reid’s Paradox of rapid plant migration. Biosci. 48:13–18.
Clarke, K.C., Brass, J.A., and Riggan, P.J. 1994. A cellular automaton model of wildfire propagation and extinction. Photogramm. Eng. Rem. Sens. 60(11):1355–1367.
Crutzen, P.J., and Goldammer, J.G. 1993. Fire in the Environment: The Ecological, Atmospheric and Climatic Importance of Vegetation Fires. New York: Wiley.
Dale, V.H., Doyle, T.W., and Shugart, H.H. 1985. A comparison of tree growth models. Ecol. Model. 29:145–169.
Dale, V.H., and Hemstrom, M. 1984. CLIMACS: A computer model of forest stand development for western Oregon and Washington. USDA Forest Service Res. Pap. PNW-327. Portland, OR: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 60p.
Dale, V.H., Hemstrom, M., and Franklin, J. 1986. Modeling the long-term effects of disturbances on forest succession, Olympic Peninsula, Washington. Can. J. For. Res. 16:56–67.
Dale, V.H., and Rauscher, H.M. 1994. Assessing impacts of climate change on forests: The state of biological modeling. Clim. Change 28:65–90.
Desanker, P.V., and Reed, D.D. 1991. A stochastic model for simulating daily growing season weather variables for input into ecological models. In: M.A. Buford (compiler). Proceedings of the 1991 Symposium on Systems Analysis in Forest Resources, pp. 1–11, March 3–6, Charleston, SC. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-74.
DeVries, D.A. 1958. Simultaneous transfer of heat and moisture in porous media. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 39:909–916.
Diaz, S., and Cabido, M. 1997. Plant functional types and ecosystem function in relation to global change. J. Veg. Sci. 8:121–133.
Dickinson, R.E., Erroco, R.M., Giorgi, F., and Bates, G.T. 1989. A regional climate model for the western United States. Clim. Change 15:383–422.
Dixon, R.K., Meldahl, R.S., Ruark, G.A., and Warren, W.G., eds. 1990. Process Modelling of Forest Growth Responses to Environmental Stress. Portland, OR: Timber Press.
Dyer, J.M. 1995. Assessment of climatic warming using a model of forest species migration. Ecol. Model. 79:199–219.
Eis, S., and Craigdallie, D. 1983. Reproduction of conifers: A handbook for cone crop assessment, pp. 12–27. Canadian Forest Service Tech. Rep. 31.
Everham, E.M., Wooster, K.B., and Hall, C.A.S. Forest landscape climate modeling. In: M.A. Buford (compiler). Proceedings of the 1991 Symposium on Systems Analysis in Forest Resources, March 3–6, pp. 11–16, Charleston, SC. USDA Forest Service Gen. Techn. Rep. SE-74.
Fall, J., and Fall, A. 1996. SELES: A spatially explicit landscape event simulator. In Proceedings of the NCGIA Conference on GIS and Environmental Modeling, January 12, pp. 1–12, Santa Fe, NM.
Finney, M.A. 1995. The missing tail and other considerations for the use of fire history models. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 5(4):197–202.
Finney, M.A. 1998. FARSITE: Fire area simulator-Model development and evaluation. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-4. 47p.
Fischer, W.C., and Bradley, A.F. 1987. Fire ecology of western Montana forest habitat types. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-223. Intermountain Research Station. USDA Forest Service. 95p.
Fischer, W.C., Miller, M., Johnston, C.M., Smith, J.K., Simmerman, D.G., and Brown, J.K. 1996. Fire effects information system: User’s guide. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-327. 131p.
Flannigan, M.D., and Wotton, B.M. 1991. Lightning-ignited forest fires in northwestern Ontario. Can. J. For. Res. 21:277–287.
Flinn, M.A., and Wein, R.W. 1977. Depth of underground plant organs and theoretical survival during fire. Can. J. Bot. 55:2550–2554.
Ford, R., Running, S.W., and Nemani, R. 1994. A modular system for scalable ecological modeling. IEEE Comp. Sci. Eng. 10:32–44.
Forman, R.T.T., and Godron, M. 1986. Landscape Ecology. New York: Wiley.
Fosberg, M.A. 1970. Drying rates of heartwood below fiber saturation. For. Sci. 16:57–63.
Fowler, P.M., and Asleson, D.O. 1984. The location of lightning-caused wildland fires, Northern Idaho. Phys. Geogr. 5(3):240–253.
Fox, J.F. 1989. Bias in estimating forest disturbance rates and tree lifetimes. Ecology 70(5): 1267–1272.
Frandsen, W.H., and Andrews, P.L. 1979. Fire behavior in nonuniform fuels. Res. Pap. INT-232. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 34p.
Frandsen, W.H. 1991a. Heat evolved from smoldering peat. Int. J. Wild. Fire 1:197–204.
Frandsen, W.H. 1991b. Burning rate of smoldering peat. Northwest Sci. 65(4):166–172.
French, I.A. 1992. Visualization techniques for the computer simulation of bushfires in two dimensions. M.S. thesis. University of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force Academy. 140p.
Friend, A.D., Shugart, H.H., and Running, S.W. 1993. A physiology-based gap model of forest dynamics. Ecology. 74(3):792–797.
Fuquay, D.M. 1980. Lightning that ignites forest fires. In Proceedings, Sixth Conference on Fire and Meteorology, pp. 109–112. April 22–24, Seattle, WA. Society of American Foresters, Washington, DC.
Fuquay, D.M., Baughman, R.G., and Latham, D.J. 1979. A model for predicting lightning-fire ignition in wildland fuels. USDA Forest Service Res. Pap. INT-217. 21p.
Fuquay, D.M., Taylor, A.R., Hawe, R.G., and Schmid, C.W. 1972. Lightning discharges that caused forest fires. J. Geophy. Res. 77:2156–2158.
Garcia, C.V., Woodard, P.M., Tinus, S.J., Adamowicz, W.L., and Lee, B.S. 1995. A logit model for predicting the daily occurrence of human caused forest fires. Int. J. Wild. Fire 5(2):101–111.
Gardner, R.H., Hargrove, W.W., Turner, M.G., and Romme, W.H. 1996. Climate change, disturbances and landscape dynamics. pp. 149–172. In Global Change and Terrestrial Ecosystems, ed. B.H. Walker and W.L. Steffen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gardner, R.H., Romme, W.H., and Turner, M.G. 1999. Predicting forest fire effects at landscape scales. In Spatial Modeling of Forest Landscape Change: Approaches and Applications, eds. D.J. Mladenoff and W.L. Baker, pp. 163–185. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gay, C.A. 1989. Modeling tree level processes. In Proceedings of the Second US-USSR Symposium Air Pollution Effects on Vegetation Including Forest Ecosystems, eds. I. Nobel and D. Reginald, 143–155. Broomall, PA, September 1989.
Giorgi, F., Marinucci, M.R., Bates, G.T., and Canio, G.D. 1993a. Development of a second generation regional climate model (RegCM2). I. Boundary-layer and radiative transfer processes. Mon. Wea. Rev. 121:2794–2813.
Giorgi, F., Marinucci, M.R., Bates, G.T., and Canio, G.D. 1993b. Development of a second generation regional climate model (RegCM2). II. Convective processes and assimilation of lateral boundary conditions. Mon. Wea. Rev. 121:2813–2832.
Goldewijk, K.K., van Minnen, J.G., Kreileman, G.J., Vloedbeld, M., and Leemans, R. 1994. Simulating the carbon flux between the terrestrial environment and the atmosphere. Water Air Soil Pollut. 76:199–230.
Goodchild, M.F., Parks, B.O., and Steyaert, L.T. 1993. Environmental Modeling with GIS. New York: Oxford University Press.
Graham, B.L., Holle, R.L., and Lopez, R.E. 1997. Lightning detection and data use in the United States. Fire Manag. Notes 57(2):4–9.
Green, D.G. 1983. Shapes of simulated fires in discrete fuels. Ecol. Model. 20:21–32.
Green, D.G. 1989. Simulated effects of fire, dispersal and spatial pattern on competition within forest mosaics. Vegetatio 82:139–153.
Greene, D.F., and Johnson, E.A. 1989. A model of wind dispersal of winged or plumed seeds. Ecol. 70:339–347.
Greene, D.F., and Johnson, E.A. 1996. Wind dispersal of seeds from a forest into a clearing. Ecol. 77(2):595–609.
Grier, C.C. 1975. Wildfire effects on nutrients distribution and leaching in a coniferous ecosystem. Can. J. For. Res. 5:599–607.
Grime, J.P. 1979. Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes. New York: Wiley.
Groot, A. 1988. Methods for estimating seedbed receptivity and for predicting seedling stocking and density in broadcast seeding. Can. J. For. Res. 18:1541–1549.
Hanson, J.D., Parton, W.J., and Innis, G.S. 1985. Plant growth and production of grassland ecosystems: a comparison of modelling approaches. Ecol. Model. 29:131–144.
Hartford, R.A. 1990. Smoldering combustion limits in peat as influenced by moisture, mineral content, and organic bulk density. In Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Fire and Forest Meteorology, eds. D.C. MacIver, H. Auld, R. Whitewood, pp. 282–286. April 17–21, Ottawa, Ontario. Forestry Canada, Petawawa National Forestry Institute, Chalk River, Ontario.
Host, G.E., and Isebrands, J.G. 1994. An interregional validation of ECOPHYS, a growth process model of juvenile poplar clones. Tree Physiol. 14:933–945.
Hsie, E.Y. 1987. MM4 (Penn State/NCAR) mesoscale model version 4 documentation. NCAR Tech. Note, NCAR/TN294 + STR, National Center for Atmospheric Research, P.O. Box 3000, Boulder, CO 80307. 215p.
Hungerford, R.D. 1990. Modeling the downward heat pulse from fire in soils and in plant tissue. In Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Fire and Forest Meterology, eds. D.C. MacIver, H. Auld, R. Whitewood, pp. 148–151. April 17–21, Ottawa, Ontario. Forestry Canada, Petawawa National Forestry Institute, Chalk River, Ontario.
Hungerford, R.D., Frandsen, W.H., and Ryan, K.C. 1995. Ignition and burning characteristics of organic soils. In Fire in Wetlands: A Management Perspective. Proceedings of the Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference No. 19, eds. S.I. Cerulean and R.T. Engstrom, pp. 78–91. Tallahasee, FL. Tall Timbers Research Station.
Hungerford, R.D., Nemani, R.R., Running, S.W., and Coughlan, J.C. 1989. MTCLIM: A mountain microclimate simulation model. Research Paper INT-414. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 52p.
Hunsaker, C.T., Nisbet, R.A., Lam, D.C., Brower, J.A., Baker, W.L., Turner, M.G., and Botkin, D.B. 1993. Spatial models of ecological systems and processes: The role of GIS. In Environmental Modeling with GIS, eds. M.F. Goodchild, B.O. Parks, L.T. Steyaert, pp. 248–264. New York: Oxford University Press.
Hunt, E.R., Piper, S.C., Nemani, R., Keeling, C.D., Otto, R.D., and Running, S.W. 1996. Global net carbon exchange and intra-annual atmospheric CO2 concentrations predicted by an ecosystem process model and three-dimensional atmospheric transport model. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 10(3):431–456.
Huston, M., DeAngelis, D., and Post, W. 1988. New computer models unify ecological theory. BioScience 38(10):682–691.
Johnson, E.A. 1992. Fire and Vegetation Dynamics: Studies from the North American Boreal Forest. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Johnson, E.A., and Gutsell, S.L. 1994. Fire frequency models, methods, and interpretations. Adv. Ecol. Res. 25:239–285.
Johnson, E.A., and Van Wagner, C.E. 1985. The theory and use of two fire history models. Can. J. For. Res. 15:214–220.
Johnson, W.C., Sharpe, D.M., DeAngelis, D.L., Fields, D.E., and Olson, R.J. 1981. Modeling seed dispersal and forest island dynamics. In Forest Island Dynamics in Man-Dominated Landscapes, eds. R.L. Burgess and D.M. Sharpe, pp. 215–239. New York: Springer.
Jury, W.A. 1973. Simultaneous transport of heat and moisture through a medium sand. Ph.D. dissertation. Physics Department, University of Wisconsin, Madison. 19p.
Karafyllidis, I., and Thanailakis, A. 1997. Amodel for predicting forest fire spreading using cellular automata. Ecol. Model. 99:87–97.
Keane, R.E. 1987. Forest succession in western Montana-A computer model designed for resource management. Res. Note INT-376. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 8p.
Keane, R.E., Arno, S.F., and Brown, J.K. 1989. FIRESUM-An ecological process model for fire succession in Western conifer forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-266. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 76p.
Keane, R.E., Arno, S.F., and Brown, J.K. 1990. Simulating cumulative fire effects in ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forests. Ecology 71(1):189–203.
Keane, R.E., Morgan, P., and Running, S.W. 1996. Fire-BGC-A mechanistic ecological process model for simulating fire succession on coniferous forest landscapes of the Northern Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service Res. Pap. INT-484. 122p.
Keane, R.E., Long, D.G., Menakis, J.P., Hann, W.J., and Bevins, C. 1996. Simulating coarse scale vegetation dynamics with the Columbia River Basin succession model CRBSUM. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-340. 50p.
Keane, R.E., Hardy, C.C., Ryan, K.C., and Finney, M.A. 1997. Simulating effects of fire on gaseous emissions from future landscape of Glacier National Park, Montana, USA. World Resources Rev. 9(2):177–205.
Keane, R.E., and Long, D.G. 1997. A comparison of coarse scale fire effects simulation strategies. Northwest Sci. 72(2):76–90.
Keane, R.E., Rarsons, R., and Hessburg, P. 2002. Estimating historical range and variation of landscape path dynamics: Limitations of the simulation approach. Ecol. Model. (In press).
Kellomäki, S., and Väisänen, H. 1991. Application of a gap model for the simulation of forest ground vegetation in boreal conditions. For. Ecol. Manag. 42:35–47.
Kercher, J.R., and Axelrod, M.C. 1984. A process model of fire ecology and succession in a mixed-conifer forest. Ecology 65(6):1725–1742.
Kessell, S.R., Good, R.B., and Hopkins, A.J.M. 1984. Implementation of two new resource management information systems in Australia. Environ. Manag. 8:251–270.
Kimmins, J.P. 1993. Scientific foundations for the simulation of ecosystem function and management in FORCYTE-11. Inf. Rep. NOR-X-328. Edmonton, Alberta: Forestry Canada, Northwest Region, Northern Forestry Centre. 88p.
Knight, D.H. 1987. Parasites, lightning and the vegetation mosaic in wilderness andscapes. In Landscape Heterogeneity and Disturbance, ed. M.G. Turner, pp. 59–83. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Knight, I., and Coleman, J. 1993. A fire perimeter expansion algorithm based on Huygens? wavelet propagation. Int. J. Wild. Fire 3(2):73–84.
Korol, R.L., Running, S.W., Milner, K.S., and Hunt, E.R. 1991. Testing a mechanistic carbon balance model against observed tree growth. Can. J. For. Res. 21:1098–1105.
Korol, R.L., Running, S.W., and Milner, K.S. 1995. Incorporating intertree competition into an ecosystem model. Can. J. For. Res. 25:413–424.
Korzukhin, M.D., Ter-Mikaelian, M.T., and Wagner, R.G. 1996. Process versus empirical models: which approach for forest ecosystem management? Can. J. For. Res. 26: 879–887.
Kourtz, P., and O’Reagan, W.G. 1971. A model for a small forest fire to simulate burned and burning areas for use in a detection model. For. Sci. 17(2):163–169.
Kutiel, P., and Shaviv, A. 1992. Effects of soil type, plant composition and leaching on soil nutrients following a simulated forest fire. For. Ecol. Manag. 53:329–343.
Lall, U., and Sharma, A. 1996. A nearest neighbor bootstrap for time series resampling. Water Resources Res. 32(3): 679–693.
Landsberg, J.J., and Gower, S.T. 1997 Applications of Physiological Ecology to Forest Management. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Latham, D. 1983. LLAFFS-A lightning-locating and fire-forecasting system. USDA Forest Service Res. Pap. INT-315. 44p.
Latham, D., Burgan, R., Chase, C., and Bradshaw, L. 1997. Using lightning location in the Wildland Fire Assessment System. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. INTGTR-349. 5p.
Latham, D.J., and Schlieter, J.A. 1989. Ignition probabilities of wildland fuels based on simulated lightning discharges. USDA Forest Service Res. Pap. INT-411. 16p.
Latham, D. 1994. PLUMP: A plume predictor and cloud model for fire managers. USDA Forest Service INT-GTR-314. 15p.
Lauenroth, W.K., Urban, D.L., Coffin, D.P., Parton, W.J., Shugart, H.H., Kirchner, T.B., and Smith, T.M. 1993. Modeling vegetation structure-ecosystem process interactions across sites and ecosystems. Ecol. Model. 67:49–80.
Leemans, R. 1992. Simulation and future projection of succession in a Swedish broadleaved forest. For. Ecol. Manag. 48:305–319.
Leemans, R., and Prentice, I. 1989. FORSKA, a general forest succession model. Gen. Rep. 89/2, Institute of Ecological Botany, Uppsala, Sweden. 45p.
Levitt, J. 1980. Responses of Plants to Environmental Stresses: Chilling, Freezing, and High Temperature Stresses, vol. 1. New York: Academic Press.
Levine, E.R., Ranson, K.J., Smith, J.A., Williams, D.L., Knox, R.G., Shugart, H.H., Urban, D.L., and Lawrence, W.T. 1993. Forest ecosystem dynamics; linking forest succession, soil process and radiation models. Ecol. Model. 75:199–219.
Li, C., Ter-Mikaelian, M., and Perera, A. 1996. Temporal fire disturbance patterns on a forest landscape. Ecol. Model. 99(2, 3):137–150.
Little, S.N., and Ohmann, J.L. 1988. Estimating nitrogen lost from the forest floor during prescribed fires in Douglas-fir/western hemlock clearcuts. For. Sci. 34(1):152–164.
Luce, C.H., Kluzek, E., and Bingham, G.E. 1995. Development of a high resolution climatic data set for the Northern Rockies. In Interior West Global Change Workshop, ed. R. Tinus, pp. 106–111. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-262.
Malanson, G.P. 1996. Effects of dispersal and mortality on diversity in a forest stand model. Ecol. Model. 87:103–110.
Malanson, G.P., and Armstrong, M.P. 1996. Dispersal probability and forest diversity in a fragmented landscape. Ecol. Model. 87:91–102.
Marsden, M.A. 1983. Modeling the effect of wildfire frequency on forest structure and succession in the Northern Rocky Mountains. J. Environ. Manag. 16(1):45–62.
Martell, D.L., Bevilacqua, E., and Stocks, B.J. 1989. Modelling seasonal variation in daily people-caused forest fire occurrence. Can. J. For. Res. 19:1555–1563.
McArthur, A.G. 1967. Fire behavior in eucalypt forests. Commonwealth of Australia Forestry and Timber Bureau Leaflet No. 107. 80p.
McCarthy, M.A., and Gill, A.M. 1997. Fire modeling and biodiversity. In Natural and Altered Landscapes: Disturbance Ecology of Ecosystems, pp. 79–88. Amsterham: Elsevier.
McCaughey, W.W., Schmidt, W.C., and Shearer, R.C. 1985. Seed dispersal characteristics of conifers of the Inland Mountain West. In Proceedings of Symposium on Conifer Seed in Inland Mountain West, ed. R.C. Shearer (compiler), pp. 50–61. April 5–6, Missoula, MT.
McClanahan, T.R. 1986. Seed dispersal from vegetation islands. Ecol. Model. 32:301–309.
McKenzie, D., Peterson, D.L., and Alvarado, E. 1996. Extrapolation problems in modeling fire effects at large spatial scales: A review. Int. J. Wild. Fire 6(4):165–176.
McMurtrie, R.E., Leuning, R., Thompson, W.A., and Wheeler, A.M. 1992. A model of canopy photosynthesis and water use incorporating a mechanistic formulation of leaf CO2 exchange. For. Ecol. Manag. 52:261–278.
Meetenmeyer, V. 1978. Macroclimate and lignin control of decomposition rates. Ecology 59:465–472.
Miller, C. 1994. A model of the interactions among climate, fire, and forest pattern in the Sierra Nevada. MS thesis. Department of Forest Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. 77p.
Miller, C., and Urban, D.L. 1999a. A model of surface fire, climate and forest pattern in the Sierra Nevada, California. Ecol. Model. 114:113–135.
Miller, C., and Urban, D.L. 1999b. Interactions between forest heterogeneity and surface fire regimes in the southern Sierra Nevada. Can. J. For. Res. 29:202–212.
Mladenoff, D.J., and Baker, W.L. 1999 Spatial Modeling of Forest Landscape Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mladenoff, D.J., Host, G.E., Boeder, J., and Crow, T.R. 1996. LANDIS: A spatial model of forest landscape disturbance, succession and management. In GIS and Environmental Modeling, pp. 175–181. NCGIA, Santa Barbara, CA.
Moeur, M. 1985. COVER: A user’s guide to the CANOPY and SHRUBS extension of the Stand Prognosis Model. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-190. 49p.
Mohren, G.M.J., Van Gerwen, C.P., and Spitters, C.J.T. 1984. Simulation of primary production in even-aged stands of Douglas-fir. For. Ecol. Manag. 9:27–49.
Mohren, G.M.J., Bartelink, H.H., and Lansen, J.J., eds. 1994. Contrasts between biologically based process models and management-oriented growth and yield models. Special issue—For. Ecol. Manag. 69(1–3):1–350.
Moore, A.D., and Noble, I.R. 1990. An individual model of vegetation stand dynamics. J. Environ. Manag. 31:61–81.
Narasimhan, T.N. 1995. Models and modeling of hydrogeologic processes. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 59:300–306.
Noble, I.R., Bary, G.A.V., and Gill, A.M. 1980. McArthur’s fire danger meters expressed as equations. Austral. J. Ecol. 5:201–203.
Noble, I.R., and Slatyer, R.O. 1977. Postfire succession of plants in Mediterranean ecosystems. In Proceedings of Symposium on the Environmental Consequences of Fire and Fuel Management in Mediterranean Ecosystems, eds. H.A. Mooney and C.E. Lowrad, pp. 27–36. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-3.
Ohtsuki, T., and Keyes, T. 1986. Biased percolation: Forest fires with wind. J. Phys. Advanus Math. Gen. 19:L281–L287.
Ottmar, R.D., Burns, M.F., Hall, J.N., and Hanson, A.D. 1993. CONSUME users guide. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-304. 118p.
Pacala, S.W., Canham, C.D., and Silander, J.A. 1993. Forest models defined by field measurements: I. The design of a northeastern forest simulator. Can. J. For. Res. 23: 1980–1988.
Parton, W.J., Schimel, D.S., Cole, C.V., and Ojima, D. 1987. Analysis of factors controlling soil organic levels of grasslands in the Great Plains. Soil Sc. Soc. Am. J. 51: 1173–1179.
Parton, W.J., Stewart, J.W.B., and Cole, C.V. 1988. Dynamics of C, N, P, and S in grassland soils: A model. Biogeochemistry 5:109–131.
Pastor, J., and Post, W.M. 1985. Development of a linked forest productivity-soil process model. Environmental Sciences Division Publication No. 2455. Oak Ridge, TN: Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc. for the U.S. Department of Energy, Environmental Sciences Division. 162p.
Pastor, J., and Post, W.M. 1986. Influence of climate, soil moisture, and succession on forest carbon and nitrogen cycles. Biogeochemistry 2:3–27.
Peter, S.J. 1992. Heat transfer in soils beneath a surface fire. Ph.D. dissertation. Development of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton. 479p.
Peterson, D.L. 1985. Crown scorch volume and scorch height: Estimates of post-fire tree condition. Can. J. For. For. Res. 15:596–598.
Pfister, R.D., Kovalchik, B.L., Arno, S.F., and Presby, R.C. 1977. Forest habitat types of Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-34. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 174p.
Philip, J.R., and DeVries, D.A. 1957. Moisture movement in porous materials under temperature gradients. Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 38:222–232.
Pielke, R.A., and Avissar, R.A. 1990. Influence of landscape structure on local and regional climate. Landscape Ecol. 4:133–155.
Pielke, R.A., Cotton, W.R., Walko, R.L., Tremback, C.J., Nicholls, M.E., Moran, M.D., Wesley, D.A., Lee, T.J., and Copland, J.H. 1992. A comprehensive meteorological modeling system-RAMS. Meteorol. Atmos. Phys. 49:69–91.
Pinty, J.P., Mascart, P., Bechtold, P., and Rosset, R. 1992. An application of the vegetation-atmosphere coupling concept to the HAPEX-MOBILHY experiment. Agricult. For. Meteorol. 61:253–279.
Pukkala, T. 1987. Simulation model for natural regeneration of Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies, Bedtula pendula and Betula pubescens. Silva Fennica 21(1):37–53.
Rajagopalan, B., Lall, U., Tarboton, D.G., and Bowles, D.S. 1997. Multivariate nonparametric resampling scheme for generation of daily weather variables. Stochast. Hydrol. Hydraul. 11(1):65–95.
Rastetter, E.B., Ryan, M.G., Shaver, G.R., Melillo, J.M., Wadelhoffer, K.J., Hobbie, J.E., and Aber, J.D. 1991. A general biogeochemical model describing the responses of the C and N cycles in terrestrial ecosystems to changes in CO2, climate, and N deposition. Tree Physiol. 9:101–126.
Rastetter, E. B. 1996. Validating models of ecosystem response to global change. Bioscience 46(3):190–197.
Ratz, A. 1995. Long-term spatial patterns created by fire: A model oriented towards boreal forests. Int. J. Wildland Fire 5(1):25–34.
Reed, K.L. 1980. An ecological approach to modeling growth of forest trees. For. Sci. 26: 33–50.
Reed, K.L., and Clark, S.G. 1979. SUCcession SIMulator: A coniferous forest simulator. Model documentation. Bulletin No. 11. Seattle: University of Washington, Coniferous Biome Ecosystem Analysis. 96p.
Reed, W.J. 1994. Estimating the historic probability of stand-replacement fire using ageclass distribution of undisturbed forest. For. Sci. 40(1):104–119.
Reinhardt, E.D., Keane, R.E., and Brownm, J.K. 1997. First order fire effects model: FOFEM 4.0, user’s guide. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-344. 65p.
Richards, G.D. 1990. An elliptical growth model of forest fire fronts and its numerical solution. Int. J. Numer. Meth. Eng. 30:1163–1179.
Richards, G.D. 1995. A general mathematical framework for modeling two-dimensional wildland fire spread. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 5(2):63–72.
Roberts, D.W. 1996. Landscape vegetation modeling with vital attributes and fuzzy ststems theory. Ecol. Model. 90:175–184.
Roberts, D.W., and Betz, D.W. 1999. Simulating landscape vegetation dynamics of Bryce Canyon National Park with the vital attributes/fuzzy systems model VAFS.LANDSIM. In Spatial Modeling of Forest Landscape Change: Approaches and Applications, eds. D.J. Mladenoff and W.L. Baker, pp. 99–123. Cambridge: Cam bridge University Press.
Rothermel, R.C. 1972. A mathematical model for predicting fire spread in wildland fuels. Res. Pap. INT-115. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 40p.
Rothermel, R.C. 1991. Predicting behavior and size of crown fires in the Northern Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service Res. Pap. INT-438. 46p.
Rothermel, R.C., Wilson, R.A., Morris, G.A., and Sackett, S.S. 1986. Modeling moisture content of fine dead wildland fuels: Input to the BEHAVE fire prediction system. USDA Forest Service Res. Pap. INT-359. 61p.
Running, S.W., and Coughlan, J.C. 1988. A general model of forest ecosystem processes for regional applications. I. Hydrologic balance, canopy gas exchange and primary production processes. Ecol. Model. 42:125–154.
Running, S.W., and Gower, S.T. 1991. FOREST-BGC, a general model of forest ecosystem processes for regional applications. II. Dynamic carbon allocation and nitrogen budgets. Tree Physiol. 9:147–160.
Running, S.W., Nemani, R.R., and Hungerford, R.D. 1987. Extrapolation of synoptic meteorological data in mountainous terrain and its use for simulating forest evapotranspiration and photosynthesis. Can. J. For. Res. 17:472–483.
Ryan, K.C., Peterson, D.L., and Reinhardt, E.D. 1987. Modeling long-term fire-caused mortality of Douglas-fir. For. Sci. 34(1):190–199.
Ryan, K.C., and Reinhardt, E.D. 1988. Predicting postfire mortality of seven western conifers. Can. J. For. Res. 18:1291–1297.
Sandberg, D.V. 1980. Duff reduction by prescribed underburning in Douglas-fir. USDA Forest Service Res. Pap. PNW-272. 18p.
Sanderlin, J.C., and Sunderson, J.M. 1975. A simulation for wildland fire management planning support (FIREMAN). In Volume II. Prototype Models for FIREMAN (Part II): Campaign Fire Evaluation. Mission Research Corp. Contract No. 231-343, Spec. 222. 249p.
Schroeder, C.N. 1974. The development of an optimized computer simulation model for heat and moisture transfer in soils. Ph.D. dissertation. Texas A&M University, College Station. 318p.
Scire, J., Strimaitis, D.G., Yamartino, R.J., and Xiamong, Z. 1995. A user’s guide for CALPUFF dispersion model. Document 1321-2. Concord, MA: Sigma Research/Earth Tech. 315p.
Segal, M., Avissar, R., McCumber, M.C., and Pielke, R.A. 1988. Evaluation of vegetation effects on the generation and modification of mesoscale circulation. J. Atmos. Sci. 45: 2268–2292.
Sestak, M.L., Marlatt, W.E., and Riebau, A.R. 1989. VALBOX: Ventilated valley box model. Unpublished report on file with Michael Sestak, USDI Bureau of Land Management and Colorado State University, Environmental Science and Technology Center, 2401 Research Blvd., Suite 205, Fort Collins, CO 80526.
Sestak, M.L., and Riebau, A.R. 1988. SASEM: Simple approach smoke estimation model. Tech. Note 382. USDI Bureau of Land Management, Fort Collins, CO 80526. 31p.
Sharpe, P.J.H., Walker, J., Penridge, L.K., Wu, H., and Rykiel, E.J. 1986. Spatial considerations in physiological models of tree growth. Tree Physiol. 2:403–421.
Shugart, H.H., and Noble, I.R. 1981. A computer model of succession and fire response of the high-altitude Eucalyptus forest of the Brindabella Range, Australian Capital Territory. Austral. J. Ecol. 6:149–164.
Shugart, H.H., and Seagle, S.W. 1985. Modeling forest landscapes and the role of disturbance in ecosystems and communities. In The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics, eds. S.T.H. Pickett and P.S. White, pp. 353–368. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Shugart, H.H., and West, D.C. 1980. Forest succession models. Bioscience 30(5):308–313.
Shugart, H.H., and West, D.C. 1977. Development of an Appalachian deciduous forest succession model and its application to assessment of the impact of the chestnut blight. J. Environ. Manag. 5:161–179.
Sievänen, R., and Burk. T.E., 1993. Adjusting a process-based growth model for varying site conditions through parameter estimation. Can. J. For. Res. 23:1837–1851.
Sievänen, R., Hari, P., Orava, P.J., and Pelkonen, P. 1988. A model for the effect of photosynthate allocation and soil nitrogen on plant growth. Ecol. Model. 41:55–65.
Simard, A.J. 1996. Fire severity, changing scales, and how things hang together. Int. J Wildl. Fire 1(1):23–34.
Sirois, L., Bonan, G.B., and Shugart, H.H. 1994. Development of a simulation model of the forest-tundra transition zone of northeastern Canada. Can. J. For. Res. 24:697–706.
Stickney, P.F. 1990. Early development of vegetation following holocaustic fire in Northern Rocky Mountain Forests. Northwest Sci. 64(5):243–249.
Strandman, H., Vaisanen, H., and Kellomaki, S. 1993. A procedure for generating synthetic weather records in conjunction of climatic scenario for modelling of ecological impacts of changing climate in boreal conditions. Ecol. Model. 70:195–220.
Swartzman, G.L. 1979. Simulation modeling of material and energy flow through an ecosystem: methods and documentation. Ecol. Model. 7:55–81.
Thornton, P.E., Running, S.W., and White, M.A. 1997. Generating surfaces of daily meteorological variables over large regions of complex terrain. J. Hydrol. 190:214–251.
Tomback, D.F. 1982. Dispersal of whitebark pine seeds by Clark’s nutcracker: A mutualism hypothesis. J. Animal Ecol. 51:451–467.
Tomback, D.F., Hoffman, L.A., and Sund, S.K. 1990. Coevolution of whitebark pine and nutcrackers: Implications for forest regeneration. In Proceedings of the Symposium: Whitebark Pine Ecosystems: Ecology and Management of a High Mountain Resource, pp. 118–130. March 29–31. Bozeman, MT. USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-270.
Turner, M.G., Costanza, R., and Sklar, F.H. 1989. Methods to evaluate the performance of spatial simulation models. Ecol. Model. 48:1–18.
Turner, M.G., Hargrove, W.W., Gardner, R.H., and Romme, W.H. 1994. Effects of fire on landscape heterogeneity in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. J. Veg. Sci. 5: 731–742.
Uman, M.A. 1987. The Lightning Discharge. Orlando, FL. Academic Press.
Urban, D.L., Bonan, G.B., Smith, T.M., and Shugart, H.H. 1991. Spatial applications of GAP models. For. Ecol. Manag. 42:95–110.
Urban, D.L., and Miller, C. 1996. Modeling Sierran forests: Capabilities and prospectus for gap models. In Final Report to Congress, Status of the Sierra Nevada Volume III, Assessments, Commissioned Reports, and Background Information. University of California, Davis, CA, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources. pp. 733–744.
Urban, D.L., and Shugart, H.H. 1992. Individual-based models of forest succession. In Plant Succession Theory and Prediction, eds. D.C. Glenn-Lewin, R.K. Peet, T.T. Veblen, pp. 249–292. London: Chapman and Hall.
USA CERL. 1990. GRASS 4.0 Reference Manual. United States Army Corps of Engineers, Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, Champaign, IL. 208p.
U.S. Geological Survey. 1987Digital Elevation Models Data User’s Guide. U.S. Department of the Interior. 38p.
Van der Pijl, L. 1982. Principles of Dispersal in Higher Plants. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Van Wagner, C.E. 1973. Height of crown scorch in forest fires. Can. J. For. Res. 3: 373–378.
Van Wagner, C.E. 1977. Conditions for the start and spread of crownfire. Can. J. For. Res. 3:373–378.
Van Wagner, C.E. 1978. Age-class distribution and the forest fire cycle. Can. J. For. Res. 8:220–227.
Vasconcelos, M.J., and Guertin, D.P. 1992. FIREMAP-Simulation of fire growth with a geographic information system. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 2:87–98.
Von Niessen, W., and Blumen, A. 1988. Dynamic simulation of forest fires. Can. J. For Res. 18:805–812.
Wallace, G. 1993. A numerical fire simulation model. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 3(2):111–116.
Wang, Y.P., and Jarvis, P.G. 1990. Description and validation of an array model-MAESTRO. Agric. For. Meteorol. 51:257–280.
Ward, D.E. 1990. Factors influencing the emissions of gases and particulate matter from biomass burning. In Fire in the Tropical Biota, ed. J.G. Goldammer, pp. 418–436. Berlin: Springer.
Ward, D.E., Peterson, J., and Hao, W.M. 1993. An inventory of particulate matter and air toxic emissions from prescribed fires in the USA for 1989. In Proceedings of the Air and Waste Management Association 1993 Annual Meeting and Exhibition. Denver, CO, June 14–18, pp. 1–19.
Waring, R.H., and Schlesinger, W.H. 1985 Forest Ecosystems Concepts and Management. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Wiens, J.A. 1989. Spatial scaling in ecology. Funct. Ecol. 3:385–397.
White, J.D. 1996. Spatial, and temporal scale effects on assessment of a regional ecosystem model: Modeling climate change in Glacier National Park, USA. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Montana, Missoula. 191p.
Zhang, Y., Reed, D.D., Cattelino, P.J., Gale, M.R., Jones, E.A., Liechty, H.O., and Mroz, G.D. 1994. A process-based growth model for young red pine. For. Ecol. Manag. 69: 21–40.
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2003 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Keane, R.E., Finney, M.A. (2003). The Simulation of Landscape Fire, Climate, and Ecosystem Dynamics. In: Veblen, T.T., Baker, W.L., Montenegro, G., Swetnam, T.W. (eds) Fire and Climatic Change in Temperate Ecosystems of the Western Americas. Ecological Studies, vol 160. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-21710-X_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-21710-X_2
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-0-387-95455-4
Online ISBN: 978-0-387-21710-9
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive