Abstract
Television as one factor in the “cycle of role division” (Eagly 1987; Shields 2002) can aid to perpetuate traditional role attitudes as well as set new norms. The aim of the study is to examine gender differences in facial expression of emotion on TV as well as changes of these differences over time. A content analysis of 12 episodes of a prominent German crime series from two time samples (1979–1981 / 2005) was done by employing the Emotional Facial Action Coding System (EmFACS, Friesen and Ekman 1983). Results show that there are gender differences in stereotypically male emotions: Male actors express these emotions significantly more frequently than female actors, while the latter show more “social smiles”. These differences are reduced over time.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Aldrich, N. J., & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2006). Sadness, anger, and frustration: Gendered patterns in early adolescents’ and their parents’ emotion talk. Sex Roles, 55, 775–785.
Alexander, M. G., & Wood, W. (2000). Women, men, and positive emotions: A social role interpretation. In A. H. Fischer (Ed.), Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 189–211). Cambridge: University Press.
Alfermann, D. (1996). Geschlechterrollen und geschlechtstypisches Verhalten. [Gender roles and gender typical behavior]. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
Ashmore, R. D., & Del Boca, F. K. (1979). Sex stereotypes and implicit personality theory: Toward a cognitive-social psychological conceptualization. Sex Roles, 5, 219–248.
Averill, J. R. (1983). Studies on anger and aggression: Implications for theories of emotion. American Psychologist, 38, 1145–1160.
Bakan, D. (1966). The duality of human existence. An essay on psychology and religion. Chicago: Mc Nally.
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Bartsch, R. A., Burnett, T., Diller, T. R., & Rankin-Williams, E. (2000). Gender representation in television commercials: Updating an update. Sex Roles, 43, 735–743.
Best, D. L., & Williams, J. E. (2001). Gender and culture. In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), The handbook of culture and psychology (pp. 195–219). New York: Oxford University Press.
Brody, L. R. (1985). Gender differences in emotional development: A review of theories and research. Journal of Personality, 53, 102–131.
Brody, L. (1999). Gender, emotion, and the family. Cambridge: University Press.
Bronstein, P., Briones, M., Brooks, T., & Cowan, B. (1996). Gender and family factors as predictors of late adolescent emotional expressiveness and adjustment: A longitudinal study. Sex Roles, 34, 739–765.
Brovermann, I. K., Brovermann, S. R., Clarkson, F. E., Rosenkrantz, P. S., & Vogel, S. R. (1972). Sex-role stereotypes: A current appraisal. Journal of Social Issues, 28, 59–78.
Buck, R. (1988). Emotional education and mass media. A new view of the global village. In R. P. Hawkins, J. M. Weimann, & S. Pingee (Eds.), Advancing communication science: Merging mass and interpersonal perspectives (pp. 44–76). Beverly Hills: Sage.
Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend (2005). Gender-Datenreport. 1. Datenreport zur Gleichstellung von Frauen und Männern in der Bundesrepublik. [Gender Data Report. 1st report of data concerning the equilization of women and men in the Federal Republic of Germany]. Retrieved from http://www.bmfsfj.de/Publikationen/genderreport/01-Redaktion/PDF-Anlagen/gesamtdokument,property=pdf.pdf.
Calvert, S. L., & Huston, A. C. (1987). Television and children’s gender schemata. In L. S. Liben & M. L. Signorella (Eds.), New directions in child development Vol. 38. Children’s gender schemata: Origins and implications (pp. 75–88). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Calvert, S. L., Kotler, J. A., Zehnder, S. M., & Shockey, E. M. (2003). Gender stereotyping in children’s reports about educational and informational television programs. Media Psychology, 5, 139–162.
CEWS Statistikportal (2009). Frauenanteile an Habilitationen, Neu-Berufungen, Professuren und C4/W3-Professuren, 1980 – 2008 [Women’s share of state doctorates, new appointments, professorships, 1980–2008] Retrieved from http://www.cews.org/statistik/hochschulen.php?aid=50&cid=18.
Coltrane, S., & Messineo, M. (2000). The perpetuation of subtle prejudice: Race and gender imagery in 1990s Television advertising. Sex Roles, 42, 363–389.
Chory-Assad, R. M., & Cicchirillo, V. (2005). Empathy and affective orientation as predictors of identification with television characters. Communication Research Reports, 22, 151–156.
Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (2000). Evolutionary psychology and the emotions. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (2nd ed., pp. 91–115). New York: Guilford.
Covert, J. J., & Dixon, T. L. (2008). A changing view: Representation and effects of the portrayal of women of color in mainstream women’s magazines. Communication Research, 35, 232–256.
Diekman, A. B., & Eagly, A. H. (2000). Stereotypes as dynamic constructs: Women and men of the past, present, and future. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1171–1188.
Diekman, A. B., Goodfried, W., & Goodwin, S. (2004). Dynamic stereotypes of power. Perceived change and stability in gender hierarchies. Sex Roles, 50, 201–215.
Dietz, T. L. (1998). An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games: Implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior. Sex Roles, 38, 425–442.
Duchenne, G. B. (1990). The mechanism of human facial expression. [Mécanisme de la physionomie humaine] In R. A. Cuthbertson (Ed.), (Trans.). Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1862).
Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behaviour: A social role interpretation. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
Eagly, A. H. (2003). The rise of female leaders. Der Aufstieg von Frauen in hohe Führungspositionen. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 34, 123–132.
Eagly, A. H., Johannsen-Schmidt, M. C., & van Engen, M. L. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 569–591.
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1975). Unmasking the face. A guide to recognizing emotions from facial clues. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1978). Facial action coding system. A technique for the measurement of facial action. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1982). False, felt, and miserable smiles. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 6, 238–252.
Europäische Kommission/Referat Chancengleichheit für Frauen und Männer (1999). Das Bild der Frau in den Medien. Ein Bericht über bestehende Untersuchungen in der Europäischen Union. [The portrayal of women in the media. Report about studies in the European Union] Luxembourg: Amt für Amtliche Veröffentlichungen der Europäischen Gemeinschaften.
Feingold, A. (1994). Gender differences in personality. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 429–453.
Fischer, A. H. (Ed.) (2000). Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Fischer, A. H., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2000). The relation between gender and emotion in different cultures. In A. H. Fischer (Ed.), Gender and emotion. Social psychological perspectives (pp. 71–94). Cambridge: University Press.
Fischer, A. H., Rodriguez, P. M., van Vianen, A. E. M., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2004). Gender and culture differences in emotion. Emotion, 4, 87–94.
Frank, M. G., & Ekman, P. (1997). The ability to detect deceit generalizes across different types of high-stake lies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 1429–1429.
Frank, M. G., Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1993). Behavioral markers and recognizability of the smile of enjoyment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 83–93.
Friesen, W. V., & Ekman, P. (1983). EMFACS: Emotional Facial Action Coding System. Unpublished manuscript. University of California, San Francisco.
Ganahl, D. J., Prinsen, T. J., & Netzley, S. B. (2003). A content analysis of prime time commercials: A contextual framework of gender representation. Sex Roles, 49, 545–551.
Gerbner, G. (1997). Gender and age in prime-time television. In D. A. Krischner & A. Kirschner (Eds.), Perspectives on psychology and the media (pp. 69–95). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Gerbner, G. (1998). Casting the American scene: A look at the characters on prime time and daytime television from 1994–1997. A Cultural Indicators Project Report [Internet]. Retrieved from http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/resources/research_documents/reports/diversity/upload/Casting-the-American-Scene-Report-pdf.pdf.
Gerbner, G., & Gross, L. (1976). Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of Communication, 26, 172–199.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Jackson-Beeck, M., Jeffries-Fox, S., & Signorielli, N. (1978). Cultural indicators: Violence profile no. 9. Journal of Communication, 28, 176–207.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1994). Growing up with television. The cultivation perspective. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects. Advances in theory and research (pp. 17–41). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
GdP — Gewerkschaft der Polizei (2002). Deutsche Polizei, 2/2002. [Police Union, German Police].
Glascock, J. (2001). Gender roles on prime-time network television: Demographics and behaviors. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 45, 656–669.
Grabe, M. E., & Drew, D. G. (2007). Crime cultivation: Comparisons across media genres and channels. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 51, 147–171.
Greenberg, B. (1988). Some uncommon television images and the drench hypothesis. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Television as a social issue: Applied social psychology (Annual 8) (pp. 88–102). Newberry Park: Sage.
Grossman, M., & Wood, W. (1993). Sex differences in intensity of emotional experience: A social role interpretation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1010–1022.
Hall, J. A. (1984). Nonverbal sex differences. Communication accuracy and expressive style. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.
Hall, J. A., Carter, J. D., & Horgan, T. G. (2000). Gender differences in nonverbal communication of emotion. In A. H. Fischer (Ed.), Gender and emotion. Social psychological perspectives (pp. 97–117). Cambridge: University Press.
Harrison, K. (2003). Television viewers’ ideal body proportions: The case of the curvaceously thin woman. Sex Roles, 48, 255–264.
Hecht, M. A., & LaFrance, M. (1998). License or obligation to smile: The effect of power and gender on amount and type of smiling. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 1–26.
Hess, U., Adams, R. B., Jr., & Kleck, R. E. (2005). Who may frown and who should smile? Dominance, affiliation, and the display of happiness and anger. Cognition & Emotion, 19, 515–536.
Hess, U., Banse, R., & Kappas, A. (1995). The intensity of facial expression is determined by underlying affective state and social situation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 280–288.
Hess, U., Beaupré, M., & Cheung, N. (2003). Who to whom and why: Cultural differences and similarities in the function of smiles. In M. H. Abel (Ed.), An empirical reflection on the smile (pp. 187–216). New York: Edwin Mellen.
Hilton, J. L., & von Hippel, W. (1996). Stereotypes. Annual review of psychology, 47, 237–271.
Hochschild, A. R. (2003). The managed heart. The commercialisation of human feeling. (20th anniversary edition). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Hoffner, C. (1996). Children’s wishful identification and parasocial interaction with favorite television characters. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 40, 389–402.
Hoffner, C., & Buchanan, M. (2005). Young adults’ wishful identification with television characters: The role of perceived similarity and character attributes. Media Psychology, 7, 325–351.
Hundhammer, T. (2008). Female = Submisse and Male = Assertive. Sexuality-priming leads to gender-based self-perception. Retrieved from http://kups.ub.uni-koeln.de/volltexte/2008/2464/pdf/TanjaHundhammerDissertation.pdf.
Jansz, J. (2000). Masculine identity and restrictive masculinity. In A. H. Fischer (Ed.), Gender and emotion. Social psychological perspectives (pp. 166–187). Cambridge: University Press.
Koelbl, H. (2004). Die Kommissarinnen. [The female chief inspectors]. Berlin: Nicolaische Verlagsbuchhandlung.
LaFrance, M. (2003). Facework and emotion work: The role of positive facial expression in constituting the social self. In J. P. Forgas & K. D. Williams (Eds.), The social self. Cognitive, interpersonal and intergroup perspectives (pp. 219–232). New York: Psychology Press.
LaFrance, M., & Hecht, M. A. (2000). Gender and smiling: A meta-analysis. In A. H. Fischer (Ed.), Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 118–143). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
LaFrance, M., Hecht, M. A., & Paluck, E. L. (2003). The contingent smile: A meta-analysis of sex differences in smiling. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 305–334.
Lee, V., & Wagner, H. (2002). The effect of social presence on the facial and verbal expression of emotion and the interrelationships among emotion components. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 26, 3–25.
Mealey, L. (2000). Sex differences. Developmental and evolutionary strategies. London: Academic.
Merten, J. (2001). Beziehungsregulation in Psychotherapien. Maladaptive Beziehungsmuster und der therapeutische Prozess [Regulation of relationships in psychotherapy]. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
Müller, U. (2000). Asymmetrische Geschlechterkultur in Organisationen und Frauenförderung als Prozess — mit Beispielen aus Betrieben und der Universität. In I. Lenz, H. Nickel, M. Hildegard, & B. Riegraf (Eds.), Forum Frauenforschung: Vol. 12. Geschlecht - Arbeit - Zukunft. [Series women’s studies: Vol. 12. Gender - Work - Future] (pp. 126–149). Münster: Westfälisches Dampfboot.
Nabi, R. L., & Riddle, K. (2008). Personality traits, television viewing, and the cultivation effect. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 52, 327–348.
Osterloh, M., & Littmann-Wernli, S. (2000). Die “gläserne Decke”. Realität und Widersprüche. [The “glass ceiling”. Reality and contradictions]. Retrieved from http://www.iou.unizh.ch/orga/downloads/publikationen/C79glaesernedecke.pdf.
Pease, A., & Pease, B. (2001). Warum Männer nicht zuhören und Frauen schlecht einparken (12. Auflage). [Why men don’t listen and women can’t read maps]. Berlin: Ullstein.
Potter, W., & Chang, I. (1990). Television exposure measures and the cultivation hypothesis. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 34, 313–333.
Rosenberg, E. (2005). The study of spontaneous facial expressions in psychology. In P. Ekman & E. Rosenberg (Eds.), What the face reveals (2nd ed., pp. 3–18). New York: Oxford University Press.
Rosenberg, E., & Ekman, P. (Eds.). (1998). What facial expression reveals about emotion, development, psychopathology, and health. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Rivadeneyra, R., & Lebo, M. L. (2008). The association between television viewing behavior and adolescents dating role attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 291–305.
Scherer, K. R., & Wallbott, H. G. (1994). Evidence for universality and cultural variation of differential emotion response patterning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 310–328.
Segrin, C., & Nabi, R. L. (2002). Does television viewing cultivate unrealistic expectations about marriage? Journal of Communication, 52, 247–263.
Shanahan, J., & Morgan, M. (1999). Television and its viewers. Cultivation theory and research. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shields, S. A. (2002). Speaking from the heart: Gender and the social meaning of emotion. Cambridge: University Press.
Signorielli, N., & Bacue, A. (1999). Recognition and respect: A content analysis of prime-time television characters across three decades. Sex Roles, 40, 527–544.
Smith, S. (2007). Perps, pimps, and provaocative clothing: Examining negative content patterns in video games. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing video games. Motives, responses, and consequences (pp. 57–76). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Ass.
Süss, D. (1993). Der Fernsehkrimi, sein Autor und die jugendlichen Zuschauer. Medienkommunikation aus drei Perspektiven am Beispiel des “Tatort”-Krimis “Kameraden”. [The crime scene, the author and the juvenile viewers. Media communication in three perspectives exemplified at the Tatort-movie “The buddies”]. Bern: Huber.
Thibault, P., Gosselin, P., Brunel, M.-L., & Hess, U. (2009). Children’s and adolescents’ perception of the authenticity of smiles. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102, 360–367.
Thompson, T. L., & Zerbinos, E. (1995). Gender roles in animated cartoons: Has the picture changed in 20 years? Sex Roles, 32, 651–673.
Tomada, G., & Schneider, B. H. (1997). Relational aggression, gender, and peer acceptance: Invariance across culture, stability over time, and concordance among informants. Developmental Psychology, 33, 601–609.
UNECE Statistical Database (2009). Labour force by Age, Sex, Measurement, Country and Year. Retrieved from http://w3.unece.org/pxweb/DATABASE/STAT/30-GE/03-WorkAndeconomy/03-WorkAndeconomy.asp.
Von Salisch, M., Kristen, A., & Oppl, C. (2007). Computerspiele mit und ohne Gewalt. Auswahl und Wirkung bei Kindern. [Computer games with and without violence. Selection by children and effects on children]. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.
Van Engen, M. L., & Willemsen, T. M. (2004). Sex and leadership styles: A meta-analysis of research published in the 1990s. Psychological Reports, 94, 3–18.
Wacker, H. (2000). Das große Tatort-Buch. Filme, Fakten und Figuren. [The big Tatort-book. Episodes, facts and actors]. Berlin: Henschel.
Wagner, G. (1986). Entwicklung eines automatisierten Verfahrens zur Affektinterpretation. [Development of an automatized procedure for the interpretation of emotions] (unpublished manuscript). Fachrichtung Psychologie, Universität des Saarlandes.
Wallbott, H. (1988). Big girls don’t frown, big boys don’t cry. Gender differences of professional actors in communicating emotion via facial expression. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 12, 98–106.
Wilson, B. J., & Drogos, K. L. (2007). Preschoolers’ attraction to media characters. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the NCA 93rd Annual Convention, TBA, Chicago, IL Retrieved from http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p192599_index.html.
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1982). Measuring sex stereotypes: A multination study. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990a). Measuring sex stereotypes: A multi-nation study (Revised edition). Newbury Park: Sage.
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990b). Sex and psyche: Gender and self viewed cross-culturally. Newbury Park: Sage.
Wittenbrink, B., Hilton, J. L., & Gist, P. L. (1998). In search of similarity: Stereotypes as naive theories in social categorization. Social Cognition, 16, 31–55.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the editors and the anonymous reviewers for their very helpful comments.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Finger, J., Unz, D.C. & Schwab, F. Crime Scene Investigation: The Chief Inspectors’ Display Rules. Sex Roles 62, 798–809 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9722-5
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9722-5