Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Increasing Diversity in School Psychology: Uniting the Efforts of Institutions, Faculty, Students, and Practitioners

  • Systematic Review
  • Published:
Contemporary School Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Historically, practitioners from culturally diverse backgrounds, especially racial, ethnic, and linguistic (REL) minority backgrounds, have been significantly underrepresented in the field of school psychology. A lack of diversity in the workforce is problematic for a number of reasons and ultimately limits the range of talents, ideas, and perspectives represented in the profession. While some research has described potential strategies that university faculty can employ to address this problem, further clarification is needed regarding the roles of institutions, graduate students, and practitioners in promoting the diversification of the field. The purpose of this article is to describe the barriers that impede the recruitment and retention of REL minority graduate students in school psychology training programs. Moreover, this article provides targeted recommendations for postsecondary institutions, faculty, graduate students, and practitioners for increasing the presence of culturally diverse individuals in training programs. Ultimately, coordinated efforts among stakeholders in a variety of roles are likely to have a greater collective impact in increasing the representation of minority students in school psychology programs.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Oxford England: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, L. A. (2013). Theoretical foundations. In M. Adams, W. J. Blumenfeld, C. Castañeda, H. W. Hackman, M. L. Peters, & X. Zúñiga (Eds.), Readings for diversity and social justice (pp. 21–26). New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bleske-Rechek, A., & Browne, K. (2014). Trends in GRE scores and graduate enrollments by gender and ethnicity. Intelligence, 46, 25–34. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.05.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bocanegra, J. O. (2012). Overcoming the gap between diversity recruitment research and practice. Communiqué, 40(8), 1–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bocanegra, J. O., Gubi, A. A., Fan, C., & Hansmann, P. R. (2015). Undergraduate psychology students’ knowledge and exposure to school psychology: suggestions for diversifying the field. Contemporary School Psychology, 19, 12–20. doi:10.1007/s40688-015-0046-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowman, N. A., & Park, J. J. (2014). Interracial contact on college campuses: comparing and contrasting predictors of cross-racial interaction and interracial friendship. Journal of Higher Education, 85, 660–690. doi:10.1353/jhe.2014.0029.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowman, R. L., Bowman, V. E., & DeLucia, J. L. (1990). Mentoring in a graduate counseling program: students helping students. Counselor Education and Supervision, 30, 58–65. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6978.1990.tb01179.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowman, N. A., Park, J. J., & Denson, N. (2015). Student involvement in ethnic student organizations: examining civic outcomes 6 years after graduation. Research in Higher Education, 56, 127–145. doi:10.1007/s11162-014-9353-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chandler, D. R. (2011). Proactively addressing the shortage of blacks in psychology: highlighting the school psychology subfield. Journal of Black Psychology, 37, 99–127. doi:10.1177/0095798409359774.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chang, M. J. (1999). Does racial diversity matter? The educational impact of a racially diverse undergraduate population. Journal of College Student Development, 40, 377–395.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christ, O., Schmid, K., Lolliot, S., Swart, H., Stolle, D., Tausch, N., Ramiahg, A., Wagnera, U., Vertovech, S., & Hewstone, M. (2014). Contextual effect of positive intergroup contact on outgroup prejudice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 3996–4000. doi:10.1073/pnas.1320901111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, C. R., Mercer, S. H., Zeigler-Hill, V., & Dufrene, B. A. (2012). Barriers to the success of ethnic minority students in school psychology graduate programs. School Psychology Review, 41, 176–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conley, D. (2001). Capital for college: parental assets and postsecondary schooling. Sociology of Education, 74(1), 59–72. doi:10.2307/2673145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Council of Economic Advisers (1998). Changing America: indicators of social and economic well-being by race and Hispanic origin. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

  • Curtis, M., Castillo, J., & Gelley, D. (2012). School psychology 2010: demographics, employment, and the context for professional practices—part 1. Communiqué, 40(7), 28–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Andrea, M., Daniels, J., & Heck, R. (1991). Evaluating the impact of multicultural counseling raining. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 143–150. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1991.tb01576.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, M. N., & Foster-Johnson, L. (2001). Mentoring in the preparation of graduate researchers of color. Review of Educational Research, 71, 549–574. doi:10.3102/00346543071004549.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, D. J. (2008). Mentorship and the socialization of underrepresented minorities into the professoriate: examining varied influences. Mentoring Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 16, 278–293. doi:10.1080/13611260802231666.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delgado-Romero, E. A., & Wu, Y. (2010). Asian international students in counseling programs: a group intervention to promote social justice. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 35, 290–298. doi:10.1080/01933922.2010.492896.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeNavas-Walt, C., & Proctor, B. D. (2015). Income and poverty in the United States: 2014. (P60-252). U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC.

  • Dixon-Reeves, R. (2003). Mentoring as a precursor to incorporation: an assessment of the mentoring experience of recently minted PhDs. Journal of Black Studies, 34, 12–27. doi:10.1177/0021934703253680.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esquivel, G. B., Warren, T. M., & Littman Olitzky, S. (2007). A historical review of the development of multicultural school psychology. In G. Esquivel, E. Lopez, & S. Nahari (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural school psychology (pp. 3–29). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Finegold, K., & Wherry, L. (2004). Race, ethnicity, and health: snapshots of America’s families III (Report No. 20). Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Fuligni, A., Tseng, V., & Lam, M. (1999). Attitudes toward family obligations among American adolescents with Asian, Latin American, and European backgrounds. Child Development, 70, 1030–1044. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00075.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grapin, S., Lee, E., & Jaafar, D. (2015). A multilevel framework for recruiting and supporting graduate students from culturally diverse backgrounds in school psychology programs. School Psychology International, 36, 339–357. doi:10.1177/0143034315592270.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Green, T. D., Cook-Morales, V. J., Robinson-Zanartu, C. L., & Ingraham, C. L. (2009). Pathways on a journey of getting it: multicultural competency training and continuing professional development. In J. M. Jones (Ed.), The psychology of multiculturalism in the schools: a primer for practice, training, and research (pp. 83–116). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffin, K. A., & Muñiz, M. M. (2011). The strategies and struggles of graduate diversity officers in the recruitment of doctoral students of color. Equity and Excellence in Special Education, 44(1), 57–76. doi:10.1080/10665684.2011.54096.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gushue, G. V., Scanlan, K. R. L., Pantzer, K. M., & Clarke, C. P. (2006). The relationship of career decision-making self-efficacy, vocational identity, and career exploration behavior in African American high school students. Journal of Career Development, 33, 19–28. doi:10.1177/0894845305283004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, R. W., & Yung, B. (1993). Minority student recruitment and retention practices among schools of professional psychology: a national survey and analysis. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 24, 3–12. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.24.1.3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartung, P. J., Porfeli, E. J., & Vondracek, F. W. (2005). Child vocational development: a review and reconsideration. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 385–419. doi:10.1007/BF02207769.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haselhuhn, C. W., & Clopton, K. L. (2008). The representation of applied psychology areas in introductory psychology textbooks. Teaching of Psychology, 35, 205–209. doi:10.1080/00986280802189130.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hurtado, S., Griffin, K. A., Arellano, L., & Cuellar, M. (2008). Assessing the value of climate assessments: progress and future directions. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 1(4), 204–221. doi:10.1037/a0014009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Irvin, M. J., Meece, J. L., Byun, S., Farmer, T. W., & Hutchins, B. C. (2011). Relationship of school context to rural youth’s educational achievement and aspirations. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 1225–1242. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9628-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kallio, R. E. (1995). Factors influencing the college choice decisions of graduate students. Research in Higher Education, 36, 109–124. doi:10.1007/BF02207769.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kenny, M. E., Bluestein, D. L., Chaves, A., Grossman, J. M., & Gallagher, L. A. (2003). The role of perceived barriers and relational support in the educational and vocational lives of urban high school students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 142–155. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.50.2.142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lott, B., & Rogers, M. (2011). Ethnicity matters for undergraduate majors in challenges, experiences, and perceptions of psychology. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17, 204–210. doi:10.1037/a0023673.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miranda, A., Radliff, K. M., Cooper, J. M., & Eschenbrenner, C. R. (2014). Graduate student perceptions of the impact of training for social justice: development of a training model. Psychology in the Schools, 51, 348–365. doi:10.1002/pits.21755.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moy, G. E., Briggs, A., Shriberg, D., Furrey, K. J., Smith, P., & Tompkins, N. (2014). Developing school psychologists as agents of social justice: a qualitative analysis of student understanding across three years. Journal of School Psychology, 52, 323–341. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2014.03.001.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muñoz-Dunbar, R., & Stanton, A. L. (1999). Ethnic diversity in clinical psychology: recruitment and admission practices among doctoral programs. Teaching of Psychology, 26, 259–263. doi:10.1207/s15328023TOP.260403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Murdock, J. L., Stipanovic, N., & Lucas, K. (2013). Fostering connections between graduate students and strengthening professional identity through co-mentoring. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 41, 487–503. doi:10.1080/03069885.2012.756972.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Association of School Psychologists. (2016). NASP. Retrieved from http://www.nasponline.org/

  • National Center for Education Statistics. (2013). Average total cost of attendance for first-time, full-time undergraduate students in degree-granting postsecondary institutions, by control and level of institution, living arrangement, and component of student costs: 2009–10 through 2012–13. Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_330.40.asp

  • National Center for Education Statistics. (2015). "State Nonfiscal Survey of Public Elementary and Secondary Education," 2002–03 and 2012–13; and National Elementary and Secondary Enrollment Projection Model, 1972 through 2024. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cge.asp

  • National Science Foundation. (2013). Doctorate recipients from U.S. universities: 2013. (Report No. 15–304). Arlington, VA: Author

  • Neville, H. A., Heppner, M. J., Louie, C. E., Thompson, C. E., Brooks, L., & Baker, C. E. (1996). The impact of multicultural training on White racial identity attitudes and therapy competencies. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 27, 83–89. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.27.1.83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), 751–783. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piercy, F., Giddings, V., Allen, K., Dixon, B., Meszaros, P., & Joest, K. (2005). Improving campus climate to support faculty diversity and retention: a pilot program for new faculty. Innovative Higher Education, 30, 53–66. doi:10.1007/s10755-005-3297-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pittman, C. T. (2012). Racial microaggressions: the narratives of African American faculty at a predominantly White university. The Journal of Negro Education, 81, 82–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ponterotto, J. G., Burkard, A., Yoshida, R. K., Cancelli, A. A., Mendez, G., Wasilewski, L., & Sussman, L. (1995). Prospective minority students’ perceptions of application packets for professional psychology programs: a qualitative study. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 26, 196–204. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.26.2.196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, S. L., & Truscott, S. D. (2012). Reasons for African American student attrition from school psychology programs. Journal of School Psychology, 50, 655–679. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2012.06.002.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, S. L., & Truscott, S. D. (2013). Missing voices: African American school psychologists’ perspectives on increasing professional diversity. The Urban Review, 45, 355–375. doi:10.1007/s11256-012-0232-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor, S. L., Simpson, C. M., Levin, J., & Hackimer, L. (2014). Recruitment of diverse students in school psychology programs. Direction for future research and practice. Contemporary School Psychology, 18, 117–126. doi:10.1007/s40688-014-0012-z.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, M. R. (2006). Exemplary multicultural training in school psychology programs. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12, 115–133. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.12.1.115.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, M. R., & Molina, L. (2006). Exemplary efforts in psychology to recruit and retain students of color. American Psychologist, 61, 143–156. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.2.143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • San Diego State University. (2016). African American Mentoring Program. Retrieved from http://go.sdsu.edu/education/csp/aamp.aspx

  • Schilling, E., Grapin, S. L., & Hyson, D. (2016). Developing undergraduate courses in school psychology: tips from the trenches. Communiqué, 44(6), 20–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, D. G., Turner, C. S. V., Osei-Kofi, N., & Richards, S. (2004). Interrupting the usual: successful strategies for hiring diverse faculty. Journal of Higher Education, 75, 133–160. doi:10.1353/jhe.2004.0006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. B., Constantine, M. G., Dunn, T. W., Dinehart, J. M., & Montoya, J. A. (2006). Multicultural education in the mental health professions: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 132–145. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stanley, C. A. (2006). Coloring the academic landscape: faculty of color breaking the silence in predominantly White colleges and universities. American Educational Research Journal, 43, 701–736. doi:10.3102/00028312043004701.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tori, C., & Ducker, D. (2004). Sustaining the commitment to multiculturalism: a longitudinal study in a graduate psychology program. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35, 649–657. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.35.6.649.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, C. S. V., González, J. C., & Wood, J. L. (2008). Faculty of color in academe: what 20 years of literature tells us. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 1, 139–168. doi:10.1037/a0012837.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Census Bureau. (2015). Detailed languages spoken at home and ability to speak English for the population 5 years and over for United States: 2009–2013. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/data/tables/2013/demo/200 9-2013-lang-tables.htm.

  • Vasquez, M. J. T., Lott, B., García-Vázquez, E., Grant, S. K., Iwamasa, G. Y., Molina, L. E., Ragsdale, B. L., & Vestal-Dowdy, E. (2006). Personal reflections: barriers and strategies in increasing diversity in psychology. American Psychologist, 61, 157–172. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.2.157.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waitzkin, H., Yager, J., Parker, T., & Duran, B. (2006). Mentoring partnerships for minority faculty and graduate students in mental health services research. Academic Psychiatry, 30, 205–217. doi:10.1176/appi.ap.30.3.205.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Walcott, C. M., Charvat, J., McNamara, K. M., & Hyson, D. (2016). School psychology at a glance 2015, member survey results. New Orleans, LA: Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the National Association of School Psychologists.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, B. N., & Williams, S. M. (2006). Perceptions of African American male junior faculty on promotion and tenure: implications for community building and social capital. Teachers College Record, 108, 287–315. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00649.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright-Harp, W., & Cole, P. A. (2008). A mentoring model for enhancing success in graduate education. Contemporary Issues in Communication Science in Disorders, 35, 4–16. doi:10.3109/07380577.2015.1006752.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yager, J., Waitzkin, H., Parker, T., & Duran, B. (2007). Educating, training, and mentoring minority faculty and other trainees in mental health services research. Academic Psychiatry, 31, 146–151. doi:10.1176/appi.ap.31.2.146.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Montclair State University, 221 Dickson Hall, 1 Normal Avenue, Montclair, NJ, 07043, USA

    Sally L. Grapin, Erica T. Lee & Dounia Jaafar

  2. Department of School Psychology and Educational Leadership, Idaho State University, 921 S 8th Ave., Stop 8059, Pocatello, ID, 83204, USA

    Joel O. Bocanegra

  3. Department of Counseling and School Psychology, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA, 92182, USA

    Tonika Duren Green

Authors
  1. Sally L. Grapin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Joel O. Bocanegra
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Tonika Duren Green
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Erica T. Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Dounia Jaafar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sally L. Grapin.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Grapin, S.L., Bocanegra, J.O., Green, T.D. et al. Increasing Diversity in School Psychology: Uniting the Efforts of Institutions, Faculty, Students, and Practitioners. Contemp School Psychol 20, 345–355 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-016-0092-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-016-0092-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation