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Exit, voice, and loyalty in international organizations: US involvement in the League of Nations

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Abstract

Recent challenges to traditional international relations theory have questioned the nature of international organizations (IOs) as agents of powerful state-members and have examined various conduits through which non-state actors can voice their concerns. Yet little work has focused on participation in IOs when a powerful state’s official position contradicts the goals of actors within it. This article examines the archival record of American involvement in the League of Nations’ economic section to explore such a circumstance. I correct the prevailing historical view of American isolationism in the interwar period and argue that participation by advanced, industrial democracies can better be understood as combinations of exit, voice, and loyalty on the part of individual components of state and civil societies.

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Notes

  1. Pauly’s (1996, 1997) work on the origins of IMF surveillance is a notable exception.

  2. “S. M. Gunn’s Diary” 31 July 1928, folder 148, box 18, series 100, RG1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Rockefeller Archive Center, Tarrytown, New York (hereafter RAC). See also “League of Nations—Financial Section and Economic Intelligence Service Analytical Research” February 1938, folder 156, box 19, series 100, RG1 and “Memorandum: Interview with J.S. Condliffe, Geneva” 26 November 1931, folder 148, box 18, series 100, RG1 also Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC.

  3. “Geneva” notes by Abraham Flexner, May 30, 1938 IAS Archives: General Files, Box 38, Institute Organization, Flexner Correspondence. Loveday to Flexner, October 17, 1938 and Flexner to Loveday, November 4, 1938 IAS Archives: General Files, Box 39, League of Nations, Invitation to Economics Group, IAS Archives Institute for Advanced Study Archives, Princeton, New Jersey (herafter IAS Archives).

  4. “Raymond Fosdick to John D. Rockefeller, Jr.” 15 August 1927, folder 21, box 3, cultural interests series, RG 2, Rockefeller Family Archives, RAC.

  5. John V. Van Sickle “The Financial and Economic Intelligence Section of the Secretariat of the League of Nations” 21 December 1931, folder 148, box 18, series 100, RG 1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC.

  6. Seymour Walker to Alexander Loveday, 31 January 1938, folder 151, box, 18, series 100, RG1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC.

  7. J. Van Sickle “Standing Committee of Business Cycle Institutes” 15 September 1937, box 17, sub-series 2, series 700, RG 1.1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC. p. 1.

  8. J. Van Sickle “Standing Committee of Business Cycle Institutes” 15 September 1937, box 17, sub-series 2, series 700, RG 1.1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC. p. 4.

  9. “Arthur Sweetser to Alec Loveday,” 3 July 1939, P 145 Box 146, File 19, 1938, “A Loveday letter book 1939” second half, LON archives.

  10. Hull quoted from Ghebali, author’s translation.

  11. Kittredge to Willits, 1940 March 16, folder 152, box 18, series 100, R61, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC.

  12. For example, 20 members of the ILO’s staff were wanted by either the Nazis or the Fascists. See J.H. Willits 2 July 1940 interoffice correspondence. Folder 153, box 18, series 100, RG 1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC.

  13. Aydelotte Notes, IAS Archives: General Files: Box 39, League of Nations, Invitation to Economics Group.

  14. “Sweetser to Loveday, June 4, 1940” IAS Archives: General Files, Box 39: League of Nations, Invitation to Economics Group.

  15. At the time, his official capacity at the League was in question. Loveday wrote Riefler that the delegation he would attend was a “scientific body” and not governmental. See http://www.rich.frb.org/research/specialtopics/treasury/bios/riefler.html accessed 2/22/2005. See also Obituary for Winfield Riefler, New York Times. 10 April 1977; “Winfield W. Riefler to Dr. A. Loveday” 16 May 1938, and “Dr. A. Loveday to Winfield W. Riefler” 30 April 1938, Loveday papers, P145, Box 145, File 18 LON.

  16. Grady had been a member of the League of Nations Economic Committee and he was widely known to have held the opinion that the economic activities of the League were among its most successful activities. In August 1939 he was appointed Assistant Secretary of State. See Washington Post October 11, 1939, J. C. Rocca to Mr. Alexander Loveday August 4, 1939, Washington Star August 4, 1939.

  17. “Sweetser to Loveday, June 6, 1940” IAS Archives: General Files, Box 39, Correspondence with Arthur Sweetser. Fosdick had assumed the Presidency of the Rockefeller Foundation in 1935.

  18. George Brakeley was the financial vice-president of Princeton University.

  19. “Aydelotte to Willits” 18 June 1940, folder 153, box 18, Series 100, RG 1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC.

  20. “Grant-in-Aid” 24 June 1940, folder 148, box 18, series 100, RG1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC.

  21. J. H. Willits “League of Nations” 3 July 1940, folder 153, box 18, series 100, RG1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC.

  22. See also J. H. Willits interoffice correspondence 2 July 1940, folder 153, box 18, series 100, RG1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC.

  23. “Extract from the Report of the Director to the Trustees of the Institute for Advanced Study, October 14, 1940” folder 154, series 100, RG1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC.

  24. In particular, the Americans hoped that the remnants of the combined Health, Social and Opium Sections would come as well. Most of the assistants, clerks and secretaries had left the section in Geneva by August, yet Avenol continued to stall. The Opium section did eventually move to Washington, D.C.

  25. See “Grant-in-Aid” New York 29 October 1940, and “RASS 4134 Detail of Information” 28 May 1940 and “Document 40383” 15 November 1940, folder 148, box 18, series 100, RG1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC.

  26. “Loveday to Riefler,” 27 November 1939, P146 1939, Box 146 File 19, LON.

  27. “Extract from a letter to Frank Walters, November 27, 1948” IAS Archives: General Files, Box 39, League of Nations, Invitation to Economics Group.

  28. “Extract from a letter to Frank Walters from Arthur Sweetser, November 27, 1948” IAS Archives: General Files: Box 39, League of Nations, Invitation to Economics Group.

  29. “‘Snub’ is Charged of 3 League Aides” 23 June 1945 New York Times.

  30. Echoing its history with the League’s technical assistance programs, the US never completely severed its ties with UNESCO. It retained its observer status during these years and contributed to some UNESCO programs such as the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission and the Man and the Biosphere Programme. The US rejoined in 2003 as part of the struggle against global terrorism.

  31. J. Van Sickle “League of Nations—Financial Section and Economic Intelligence Service Analytical Research Appraisal. February 1938. folder 156, box 19, series 100, RG1, Rockefeller Foundation Archives, RAC.

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Acknowledgments

The author would like to thank Ansoumane Diara and Bernhardine Pejovic at the League of Nations Archives, Erica Mosner at the archives of the Institute for Advanced Study, and Kenneth Rose at the Rockefeller Archive Center for their assistance. She would also like to thank Randall Germain, Kenneth Grundy, Eric Helleiner, Craig Murphy, Louis Pauly, Kenneth W. Thompson and the anonymous reviewers at Review of International Organizations for their very useful comments. Grants from the College of Arts and Sciences and the W.P. Jones Presidential Initiative Fund, Case Western Reserve University, supported the research.

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  1. Department of Political Science, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH, 44106-7109, USA

    Kathryn C. Lavelle

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Correspondence to Kathryn C. Lavelle.

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Lavelle, K.C. Exit, voice, and loyalty in international organizations: US involvement in the League of Nations. Rev Int Org 2, 371–393 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11558-007-9015-0

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