Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Environmental assessment of air to water machines—triangulation to manage scope uncertainty

  • UNCERTAINTIES IN LCA
  • Published:
The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Purpose

Devices that condense and disinfect water vapour to provide chilled drinking water in office environments, so-called ‘air water generators’ (AWGs), are being marketed as environmentally friendly alternatives to the traditional bottled water cooler. We sought to examine this claim.

Methods

The approach adopted was a preliminary life cycle assessment with performance indicators for the use of energy and water and the emission of greenhouse gases. We compared an AWG with its main market competitor, the traditional bottled water cooler and a simple refrigerator containing a jug of water. Modelling was based on Australian conditions and energy supply. To manage possible scope uncertainty, we borrowed the idea of ‘triangulation’ as defined in the social sciences.

Results and discussion

We found that without a renewable energy supply, the claim of environmental superiority is not supported by quantitative analysis. For each indicator, the AWG's score was typically two to four times higher than the alternatives. Energy consumption was the key issue driving all three indicators.

Conclusions

Considering the principal environmental issues related to these systems, air-to-water machines significantly underperform bottled water coolers. A simple refrigerator has the capacity to perform multiple functions and therefore outperform both the bottled and atmospheric water options once allocation of burdens is considered. These conclusions are supported by all three perspectives examined to manage uncertainty.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Arvidsson R, Fransson K, Fröling M, Svanström M, Molander S (2012) Energy use indicators in energy and life cycle assessments of biofuels: review and recommendations. J Clean Prod 31:54–61

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blackburn N, Peters G (2009) Atmospheric water generation - an environmentally friendly alternative to bottled water? 6th Australian Conference on LCA, Melbourne, 16-19 February, Australian Life Cycle Assessment Society

  • Boulding K (1956) General systems theory - the skeleton of science. Manag Sci 2(3):197–208

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brundrett GW (1987) Handbook of dehumidification technology. London, Butterworths

  • Commonwealth of Australia (2010) E3 Equipment Energy Efficiency. 2010, at www.energyrating.com.au

  • Copeland K, Sherman S, Kendeigh C, Kalkwarf H, Saelens B (2012) Societal values and policies may curtail preschool children's physical activity in child care centres. Pediatrics 129:265–274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crabb A (2011) The great carbon tax secret: who are the Misfortune 500? viewed 10 Dec 2011, at http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-07-12/the-great-carbon-tax-secret-who-are-the-misfortune/2790974

  • De Wolff K (2007) Marketing and Materiality in the Normalization of Bottled Water. School of Sociology, Queen's University, Belfast. Masters Thesis

  • DECC (2011) Planning our electric future: a White Paper for secure, affordable and low-carbon electricity, Department of Energy and Climate Change, UK, at http://www.decc.gov.uk/assets/decc/11/policy-legislation/EMR/2176-emr-white-paper.pdf (accessed June 2012), ISBN: 9780101809924

  • Doria M (2006) Bottled water versus tap water: understanding consumers' preferences. J Wat Health 4:271–276

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentile T (2007) Proposed bottled water ‘bans’ misguided. Viewed 10 August 2008, at www.australianbeverages.org

  • Gill J (2005) The future of water in a drying climate. CA Business Forum viewed May, 2009, at http://www.watercorporation.com.au/_files/presentations/20050512.pdf

  • Global Sources (2011) Air Water Maker. Viewed October 24, 2011, at http://www.hendrx.manufacturer.globalsources.com/si/6008823530723/pdtl/Atmospheric-water/1042384173/Air-Water-Maker.htm

  • Guiterrez Y, Diaz B, Hopp M (2008) An analysis of some environmental consequences of European electrical and electronic waste regulations. Res Cons Recyc 52:481–495

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanssen O, Rukke E, Saugen B, Kolstad J, Hafrom P, von Krogh L, Raadal H, Rönning A, Wigum K (2007) The environmental effectiveness of the beverage sector in Norway in a factor 10 perspective. Int J Life Cycle Assess 12(4):257–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Harvey L (2006) A handbook on low-energy buildings and district-energy systems: fundamentals, techniques and examples. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London, ISBN: 9781844072439

    Google Scholar 

  • Horne R, Grant T, Verghese K (2009) Life cycle assessment - principles, practise and prospects. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, ISBN: 9780643094529

    Google Scholar 

  • Huijbregts M, Norris G, Bretz R, Ciroth A, Maurice B, von Bahr B, Weidema B, de Beaufort A (2001) Framework for modelling data uncertainty in life cycle inventories. Int J Life Cycle Assess 6(3):127–132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Island Sky (2007) Production Chart Skywater14. April 2008, at www.islandsky.com/production_14.html

  • Jungbluth N (2006) Comparison of the Environmental Impact of Drinking Water vs. Bottled Mineral Water. Viewed 23/9/08, at http://aquadoc.typepad.com/waterwired/files/bottled_water_impact_lca.pdf

  • Loughnane B (2010) The Coalition’s Direct Action Plan. Viewed June, 2012, at http://www.liberal.org.au/Issues/Environment.aspx

  • Lundie S, Peters G, Beavis P (2004) Life cycle assessment for sustainable metropolitan water systems planning – options for ecological sustainability. Environ Sci Technol 38(13):3465–3473

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lundie S, Peters G, Beavis P (2005) Quantitative systems analysis as a strategic planning approach for metropolitan water service providers. Wat Sci Technol 52(9):11–20

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lundie S, Peters G, Ashbolt N, Lai E, Livingston D (2006) A sustainability framework for the Australian water industry. Water 33(7):83–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Neverfail (2011) Ordering. Viewed 23 August 2011, at http://selfservice.neverfail.com.au/NewOrder/ordering.htm

  • PAS2050 (2008) Specification for the assessment of the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of goods and services. British Standards, ISBN: 978 0 580 50978 0

  • Peters G (2009) Popularise or publish. Int J Life Cycle Assess 14(6):503–507

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peters G, Wiedemann S, Rowley HV, Tucker R (2010) Accounting for water use in Australian red meat production. Int J Life Cycle Assess 15(3):311–320

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pfister S, Koehler A, Hellweg S (2009) Assessing the environmental impacts of freshwater consumption in LCA. Environ Sci Technol 43:4098–4104

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rafico (2011) Air Makes Water: Save our environment with water from the air. Viewed 23 August 2011, at http://www.royalsprings.com.au/product/fn_pdf/247/information_proposal_for_air_makes_water.pdf

  • Reed T (2011) “Energy shock: confronting higher prices.” viewed October 2011, at www.aigroup.com.au

  • Rowley HV, Peters G (2009) A hybrid LCA model for comparison with conventional methodologies in Australia. Int J Life Cycle Assess 14(6):508–516

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schulz M, Short M, Peters G (2012) A streamlined sustainability assessment tool for improved decision-making in the urban water industry. Integr Environ Assess Manag 8:183–193

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Short M, Peirson W, Peters G, Cox R (2012) Challenges in adapting water delivery systems to climate change—a review. Water Res Manag 26:1953–1981

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • USEPA (2008) Energy Star Water Cooler. Viewed 23 August 2008, at www.energystar.gov/ia/business/bulk_purchasing/bpsavings_calc/CalculatorBulkPurchasingWaterCooler.xls

  • White S, Mitchell C (2003) Forecasting and backcasting for sustainable urban water futures. Water 30(5):25–30

    Google Scholar 

  • Wyrwich K, Metz S, Kroenke K, Tierney T, Babu A, Wolinsky F (2007) Triangulating patient and clinician perspectives on clinically important differences in health-related quality of life. Health Serv Res 42(6 P1):2257–2274

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

The authors wish to thank John Peters for insightful conversations regarding electrical engineering principles and technology.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. UNSW School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Sydney, Australia

    Greg M. Peters

  2. Chemical and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96, Gothenburg, Sweden

    Greg M. Peters

  3. Monash University Centre for Water Sensitive Cities, Melbourne, Australia

    Naomi J. Blackburn

  4. SMEC Australia Pty Ltd, North Sydney, NSW, 2060, Australia

    Michael Armedion

Authors
  1. Greg M. Peters
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Naomi J. Blackburn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Michael Armedion
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Greg M. Peters.

Additional information

Responsible editor: Rainer Zah

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Peters, G.M., Blackburn, N.J. & Armedion, M. Environmental assessment of air to water machines—triangulation to manage scope uncertainty. Int J Life Cycle Assess 18, 1149–1157 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-013-0568-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-013-0568-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation