Abstract
This study investigates the impacts of income, (renewable and non-renewable) energy consumption, trade, and financial development on carbon dioxide emissions in Turkey for the 1965–2015 period by employing the non-linear autoregressive distributed lag method. Results show that non-renewable and renewable energy consumption, and trade openness have asymmetric impacts on pollution in long-run, while only renewable energy consumption has asymmetric impact on emissions in short-run. Results further reveal that the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis is not valid in Turkey. Moreover, both financial development and trade positively affect emissions. Additionally, in long-run, positive shocks in renewable and non-renewable energy consumption increase emissions, but the impact of renewable energy consumption is infinitesimally small compared to the impact of non-renewable energy consumption. However, negative shocks in renewable energy consumption increase emissions, whereas negative developments in non-renewable energy consumption decrease emissions. Further, in short-run, positive developments in renewable energy consumption decrease emissions, and negative developments in non-renewable energy consumption have the same influence on emissions. In accordance with the findings, some policy suggestions are proposed.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The author’s calculation based on the data retrieved from World Bank (2018).
Source: http://www.worldstopexports.com/turkeys-top-import-partners/ [Accessed on: 09/08/2018].
Graphs for these tests are not included in this study to conserve space, but they are available upon request.
References
Acar S, Kitson L, Bridle R (2015) Subsidies to Coal and Renewable Energy in Turkey. Retrieved from https://www.iisd.org/gsi/sites/default/files/ffsandrens_turkey_coal_eng.pdf
Al-Mulali U, Saboori B, Ozturk I (2015) Investigating the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in Vietnam. Energy Policy 76:123–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2014.11.019
Al-Mulali U, Solarin SA, Ozturk I (2016) Investigating the presence of the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) hypothesis in Kenya: an autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) approach. Nat Hazards 80(3):1729–1747. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-015-2050-x
Apergis N, Payne JE, Menyah K, Wolde-Rufael Y (2010) On the causal dynamics between emissions, nuclear energy, renewable energy, and economic growth. Ecol Econ 69(11):2255–2260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2010.06.014
Banerjee A, Dolado J, Mestre R (1998) Error-correction mechanism tests for cointegration in a single-equation framework. J Time Ser Anal 19(3):267–283. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9892.00091
Ben Jebli M, Ben Youssef S (2015) The environmental Kuznets curve, economic growth, renewable and non-renewable energy, and trade in Tunisia. Renew Sust Energ Rev 47:173–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.02.049
Bildirici ME, Gökmenoğlu SM (2017) Environmental pollution, hydropower energy consumption and economic growth: evidence from G7 countries. Renew Sust Energ Rev 75(October 2016):68–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.10.052
Bilgili F, Koçak E, Bulut Ü (2016) The dynamic impact of renewable energy consumption on CO2 emissions: a revisited environmental Kuznets curve approach. Renew Sust Energ Rev 54:838–845. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.080
Bölük G, Mert M (2014) Fossil & renewable energy consumption, GHGs (greenhouse gases) and economic growth: evidence from a panel of EU (European Union) countries. Energy 74(C):439–446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.07.008
BP Statistical Review of World Energy (2017) Data. Retrieved October 10, 2017, From https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy.html
Broock WA, Scheinkman JA, Dechert WD, LeBaron B (1996) A test for independence based on the correlation dimension. Econ Rev 15(3):197–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/07474939608800353
Bulut U (2017) The impacts of non-renewable and renewable energy on CO2 emissions in Turkey. Environ Sci Pollut Res 24(18):15416–15426. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9175-2
Burck J, Bals C, Parker L (2010) The climate change performance index—results 2011, Berlin
Burck J, Bals C, Bohnenberger K (2011) The climate change performance index—results 2012, Berlin
Burck J, Hermwille L, Krings L (2012) The climate change performance index—results 2013. Berlin. Retrieved from https://germanwatch.org/en/download/7158.pdf
Burck J, Marten F, Bals C (2013) The climate change performance index—results 2014. Berlin. Retrieved from https://germanwatch.org/en/download/8599.pdf
Burck J, Marten F, Bals C (2014) The climate change performance index —results 2015. Berlin. Retrieved from https://germanwatch.org/en/download/10407.pdf
Burck J, Marten F, Bals C, Rink E, Heinze I, Kolboske B, … Krings L (2015) The climate change performance index—results 2016. Berlin. Retrieved from https://germanwatch.org/en/download/13626.pdf%5Cn, https://germanwatch.org/en/ccpi
Burck J, Bals C, Marten F (2016) The climate change performance index—results 2017, Berlin
Burck J, Marten F, Bals C, Höhne N, Frisch C (2017) The climate change performance index—results 2018. Berlin. Retrieved from https://germanwatch.org/en/download/20504.pdf
Cerdeira Bento JP, Moutinho V (2016) CO2 emissions, non-renewable and renewable electricity production, economic growth, and international trade in Italy. Renew Sust Energ Rev 55:142–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.10.151
Climate Action Tracker (CAT) (2018) The Climate Action Tracker (CAT): Turkey 2017. Retrieved August 9, 2018, from https://climateactiontracker.org/media/documents/2018/4/CAT_2015-10-22_CountryAssessment_Turkey.pdf
Danish, Zhang B, Wang B, Wang Z (2017) Role of renewable energy and non-renewable energy consumption on EKC: evidence from Pakistan. J Clean Prod 156:855–864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.203
de Souza ES, Freire F d S, Pires J (2018) Determinants of CO2 emissions in the MERCOSUR: the role of economic growth, and renewable and non-renewable energy. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25(21):20769–20781. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-2231-8
Dergiades T, Martinopoulos G, Tsoulfidis L (2013) Energy consumption and economic growth: parametric and non-parametric causality testing for the case of Greece. Energy Econ 36:686–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2012.11.017
Dickey DA, Fuller WA (1981) Likelihood ratio statistics for autoregressive time series with a unit root. Econometrica 49(4):1057–1072. https://doi.org/10.2307/1912517
Dinda S (2004) Environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis: a survey. Ecol Econ 49(4):431–455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.02.011
Enders W, Lee J (2012a) A unit root test using a Fourier series to approximate smooth breaks. Oxf Bull Econ Stat 74(4):574–599. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.2011.00662.x
Enders W, Lee J (2012b) The flexible Fourier form and Dickey-Fuller type unit root tests. Econ Lett 117(1):196–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2012.04.081
Farhani S, Shahbaz M (2014) What role of renewable and non-renewable electricity consumption and output is needed to initially mitigate CO2 emissions in MENA region? Renew Sust Energ Rev 40:80–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.170
Frey GW, Linke DM (2002) Hydropower as a renewable and sustainable energy resource meeting global energy challenges in a reasonable way. Energy Policy 30(14):1261–1265. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00086-1
Furuoka F (2014) Does hysteresis exist in unemployment? New findings from fourteen regions of the Czech Republic. Finance a Uver - Czech. J Econ Financ 64(1):59–78
Granger CWJ, Yoon G (2002) Hidden cointegration. SSRN Electron J. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.313831
Grossman GM, Krueger AB (1991) Environmental impacts of a North American Free Trade Agreement (National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series No. 3914). National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series. https://doi.org/10.3386/w3914
Grossman GM, Krueger AB (1995) Economic growth and the environment. Q J Econ 110(2):353–377. https://doi.org/10.2307/2118443
Halkos GE, Polemis ML (2017) Does financial development affect environmental degradation? Evidence from the OECD countries. Bus Strateg Environ 26(8):1162–1180. https://doi.org/10.1002/bse.1976
IEA (2016) Energy policies of IEA countries: Turkey 2016. OECD. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264266698-en
Inglesi-Lotz R, Dogan E (2018) The role of renewable versus non-renewable energy to the level of CO2 emissions a panel analysis of sub-Saharan Africa’s Βig 10 electricity generators. Renew Energy 123:36–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.02.041
Investment Support and Promotion Agency of Turkey, I. in T (2018) Energy and renewables. Retrieved August 7, 2018, From http://www.invest.gov.tr/en-US/sectors/Pages/Energy.aspx
Ito K (2017) CO2 emissions, renewable and non-renewable energy consumption, and economic growth: evidence from panel data for developing countries. Int Econ 151:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2017.02.001
Jebli MB, Ben Youssef S, Ozturk I (2016) Testing environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis: the role of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption and trade in OECD countries. Ecol Indic 60(2016):824–831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.08.031
Karasoy A, Akçay S (2018) Effects of renewable energy consumption and trade on environmental pollution: the Turkish case. Manag Environ Qual Int J. MEQ-04-2018-0081. https://doi.org/10.1108/MEQ-04-2018-0081
Katircioglu ST (2013) Interactions between energy and imports in Singapore: empirical evidence from conditional error correction models. Energy Policy 63:514–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.08.037
Katrakilidis C, Trachanas E (2012) What drives housing price dynamics in Greece: new evidence from asymmetric ARDL cointegration. Econ Model 29(4):1064–1069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2012.03.029
Khraief N, Omoju OE, Shahbaz M (2016) Are fluctuations in electricity consumption per capita in sub-Saharan Africa countries transitory or permanent? Energ Strat Rev 13–14:86–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2016.08.007
Lee JW (2013) The contribution of foreign direct investment to clean energy use, carbon emissions and economic growth. Energy Policy 55:483–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2012.12.039
Lee J, Strazicich MC (2003) Minimum Lagrange multiplier unit root test with two structural breaks. Rev Econ Stat 85(4):1082–1089 Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3211829
Lee J, Strazicich MC (2013) Minimum LM unit root test with one structural break. Econ Bull 33(4):2483–2492
Lieb CM (2002) The Environmental Kuznets Curve—a survey of the empirical evidence and of possible causes (No. 391). University of Heidelberg Department of Economics Discussion Paper Series, Heidelberg
Long X, Naminse EY, Du J, Zhuang J (2015) Nonrenewable energy, renewable energy, carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth in China from 1952 to 2012. Renew Sust Energ Rev 52:680–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.07.176
MacKinnon, J. G. (1996). Numerical distribution functions for unit root and cointegration tests. J Appl Econ, 11(6), 601–618. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1255(199611)11:6<601::AID-JAE417>3.0.CO;2-T
Marrero GA (2010) Greenhouse gases emissions, growth and the energy mix in Europe. Energy Econ 32(6):1356–1363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2010.09.007
Menyah K, Wolde-Rufael Y (2010) CO2 emissions, nuclear energy, renewable energy and economic growth in the US. Energy Policy 38(6):2911–2915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.01.024
Mert M, Bölük G (2016) Do foreign direct investment and renewable energy consumption affect the CO2 emissions? New evidence from a panel ARDL approach to Kyoto Annex countries. Environ Sci Pollut Res 23(21):21669–21681. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-016-7413-7
Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, R. of T (2015). 2015–2019 Strategic Plan. Ankara/Turkey. Retrieved from http://www.enerji.gov.tr/File/?path=ROOT%2F1%2FDocuments%2FStrategic Plan%2FStrategicPlan2015–2019.pdf
Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources, R. of T (2018) Energy efficiency. Retrieved September 8, 2018, from http://www.enerji.gov.tr/en-US/Pages/Energy-Efficiency
Narayan PK, Narayan S (2010) Carbon dioxide emissions and economic growth: panel data evidence from developing countries. Energy Policy 38(1):661–666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.09.005
Ndoricimpa A (2017) Analysis of asymmetries in the nexus among energy use, pollution emissions and real output in South Africa. Energy 125:543–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.02.065
OECD (2018) OECD Environmental Policy Stringency Data. Retrieved March 11, 2018, from https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=EPS
Oil Change International (2015) The cost of subsidizing fossil fuel production in Turkey, (September 2015). Retrieved from http://priceofoil.org/content/uploads/2015/09/OCI-350-Turkey-Fossil-Fuel-Subsidies-English-09-2015.pdf
Pata UK (2018a) Renewable energy consumption, urbanization, financial development, income and CO2 emissions in Turkey: testing EKC hypothesis with structural breaks. J Clean Prod 187:770–779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.03.236
Pata UK (2018b) The influence of coal and noncarbohydrate energy consumption on CO2 emissions: revisiting the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis for Turkey. Energy 160:1115–1123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.07.095
Pesaran MH, Shin Y, Smith RJ (2001) Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. J Appl Econ 16(3):289–326. https://doi.org/10.1002/jae.616
Rasoulinezhad E, Saboori B (2018) Panel estimation for renewable and non-renewable energy consumption, economic growth, CO2 emissions, the composite trade intensity, and financial openness of the commonwealth of independent states. Environ Sci Pollut Res 25(18):17354–17370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-1827-3
Sarkodie SA, Strezov V (2019) A review on environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis using bibliometric and meta-analysis. Sci Total Environ 649:128–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.276
Shafiei S, Salim RA (2014) Non-renewable and renewable energy consumption and CO2 emissions in OECD countries: a comparative analysis. Energy Policy 66:547–556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.10.064
Shahbaz M, Loganathan N, Mujahid N, Ali A, Nawaz A (2016a) Determinants of life expectancy and its prospects under the role of economic misery: a case of Pakistan. Soc Indic Res 126(3):1299–1316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-0927-4
Shahbaz M, Shahzad SJH, Ahmad N, Alam S (2016b) Financial development and environmental quality: the way forward. Energy Policy 98:353–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.09.002
Shahbaz M, Shahzad SJH, Alam S, Apergis N (2018) Globalisation, economic growth and energy consumption in the BRICS region: the importance of asymmetries. J Int Trade Econ Dev 8199:1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638199.2018.1481991
Shin Y, Yu B, Greenwood-Nimmo M (2014) Modelling asymmetric cointegration and dynamic multipliers in a nonlinear ARDL framework. In: Sickles RC, Horrace WC (eds) Festschrift in Honor of Peter Schmidt, vol 44. Springer New York, New York, NY, pp 281–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-8008-3_9
Solarin SA, Al-Mulali U, Musah I, Ozturk I (2017a) Investigating the pollution haven hypothesis in Ghana: an empirical investigation. Energy 124:706–719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.02.089
Solarin SA, Al-Mulali U, Ozturk I (2017b) Validating the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in India and China: the role of hydroelectricity consumption. Renew Sust Energ Rev 80:1578–1587. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.07.028
Stern DI (2003) The Rise and Fall of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (working papers in economics no. 0302). October. Troy, NY
Strazicich MC, Lee J, Day E (2004) Are incomes converging among OECD countries? Time series evidence with two structural breaks. J Macroecon 26(1):131–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmacro.2002.11.001
Sugiawan Y, Managi S (2016) The environmental Kuznets curve in Indonesia: exploring the potential of renewable energy. Energy Policy 98:187–198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.08.029
Taha R, Šliogerienė J, Loganathan N, Jokšienė I, Shahbaz M, Mardani A (2018) The Nexus between tax reformation, financial development and economic recovery: the case of Malaysia. Technol Econ Dev Econ 24(3):1258–1279. https://doi.org/10.3846/tede.2018.1919
Tamazian A, Bhaskara Rao B (2010) Do economic, financial and institutional developments matter for environmental degradation? Evidence from transitional economies. Energy Econ 32(1):137–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2009.04.004
Tamazian A, Chousa JP, Vadlamannati KC (2009) Does higher economic and financial development lead to environmental degradation: Evidence from BRIC countries. Energy Policy 37(1):246–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2008.08.025
the Economic and Development Review Committee (EDRC) of the OECD (2018) OECD Economic Surveys: Turkey. Retrieved from www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/economic-survey-turkey.htm
Turkish Statistical Institute (2018) Greenhouse Gas Emissions Statistics, 2016. Retrieved August 8, 2018, from http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreHaberBultenleri.do;jsessionid=6h2ybpyZZPplp0972xtTsZXg9GBntVP2lSF3zKWTZ8T16hTlDJL1!1771578339?id=27675
World Bank (2018) World Development Indicators. Retrieved June 7, 2018, from http://databank.worldbank.org/data/home.aspx
Zaidi SAH, Danish, Hou F, Mirza FM (2018) The role of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption in CO2 emissions: a disaggregate analysis of Pakistan. In: Environ Sci Pollut Res, vol 25, pp 31616–31629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3059-y
Zambrano-Monserrate MA, Silva-Zambrano CA, Davalos-Penafiel JL, Zambrano-Monserrate A, Ruano MA (2018) Testing environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis in Peru: the role of renewable electricity, petroleum and dry natural gas. Renew Sust Energ Rev 82:4170–4178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.11.005
Zivot E, Andrews DWK (2002) Further evidence on the great crash, the oil-Price shock, and the unit-root hypothesis. J Bus Econ Stat 20(1):25–44. https://doi.org/10.1198/073500102753410372
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible editor: Muhammad Shahbaz
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Karasoy, A. Drivers of carbon emissions in Turkey: considering asymmetric impacts. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26, 9219–9231 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04354-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-04354-4