Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Parenting and Gender as Predictors of Moral Courage in Late Adolescence: A Longitudinal Study

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The present study was designed to examine longitudinal predictors of moral courage in late adolescence. Supportive, responsive parenting, which was measured through home observations and family reports in the fifth grade year, predicted girls’ willingness in late adolescence to speak up or take action when they witnessed or experienced injustice or harm. In contrast, parenting that was harsh and restrictive predicted both girls’ and boys’ later reticence in those circumstances. Further, the effects of earlier parenting were mediated by individual and peer-related factors. Specifically, social competence with peers in fifth grade and self-esteem in twelfth grade mediated the effects of parenting on both moral courage and moral reticence for late adolescent girls, and self-esteem in fifth grade mediated the effects of parenting on moral reticence for late adolescent boys.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. As researchers using naturalistic observations have pointed out, most observed behaviors in unstructured settings are “neutral” (Christensen and Hazzard 1983; Gilbert and Christensen 1985; Steinglass 1979), whereas behaviors that may have important impact on children’s development may occur very infrequently during the relatively brief periods that families are observed. Because this infrequency of occurrence makes it difficult to establish the reliability of those behavior categories, we opted to focus on coder training and supervision and to use a more global approach for calculating reliability. An ultimate indicator of the reliability of the coding is that the composite observational measures were significantly correlated with independently measured outcomes in the expected directions, which could not have occurred if the coding were not sufficiently reliable.

  2. Preliminary examination of the present data set demonstrated this effect. Although correlations among parents’ and children’s individual scores on the various family/parenting subscales were modest (averaging .24 for mother–father, .24 for mother–child, and .21 for father–child), aggregated scores across family members on the six Family Self-Report subscales were significantly correlated with the child and adolescent outcome variables 67% more often than were either mothers’ or children’s scores taken individually, and over three times more often than were fathers’ scores.

References

  • American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. (1992). The AAUW report: How schools shortchange girls. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barber, B. K., Chadwick, B. A., & Oerter, R. (1992). Parental behaviors and adolescent self-esteem in the United States and Germany. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 54, 128–141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blasi, A. (1980). Bridging moral cognition and moral action: A critical review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 1–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Block, J. H., Haan, N., & Smith, M. B. (1969). Socialization correlates of student activism. Journal of Social Issues, 25, 143–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Block, J., & Robins, R. W. (1993). A longitudinal study of consistency and change in self-esteem from early adolescence to early adulthood. Child Development, 64, 909–923.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bloom, B. L. (1985). A factor analysis of self-report measures of family functioning. Family Process, 24, 225–239.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blyth, D. A., Simmons, R. G., & Carlton-Ford, S. (1983). The adjustment of early adolescents to school transitions. Journal of Early Adolescence, 3, 105–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyes, M. C., & Allen, S. G. (1993). Styles of parent–child interaction and moral reasoning in adolescence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 39, 551–570.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briggs, J. L. (1970). Never in anger: Portrait of an Eskimo family. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bronstein, P. (1985). Behavioral coding of family interaction. University of Vermont (Manual).

  • Bronstein, P., Cruz, M. C., Cowles, C., D’Ari, A., Pieniadz, J., Franco, O., et al. (1987). A measure of child and adolescent self-concept and psychological adjustment. ([CD-ROM] ERIC.FILE: RIE Item: ED 292 865).

  • Bronstein, P., Duncan, P., Clauson, J., Abrams, C. L., Yannett, N., Ginsburg, G., et al. (1998). Preventing middle school adjustment problems for children from lower-income families: A program for aware parenting. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 19, 129–152.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bronstein, P., Duncan, P., D’Ari, A., Pieniadz, J., Fitzgerald, M., Abrams, C. L., et al. (1996). Family and parenting behaviors predicting middle school adjustment: A longitudinal study. Family Relations, 45, 415–426.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bronstein, P., Fitzgerald, M., Briones, M., Pieniadz, J., & D’Ari, A. (1993). Family emotional expressiveness as a predictor of early adolescent social and psychological adjustment. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13, 448–471.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, T., & Bronstein, P. (1996, March). A cross-cultural comparison of mothers’ and fathers’ behavior to girls and boys. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, Boston.

  • Brown, L. M., & Gilligan, C. (1992). Meeting at the crossroads: Women’s psychology and girls’ development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlo, G., Fabes, R. A., Laible, D., & Kupanoff, K. (1999). Early adolescence and prosocial/moral behavior II: The role of social and contextual influences. Journal of Early Adolescence, 19, 133–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, A., & Hazzard, A. (1983). Reactive effects during naturalistic observation of families. Behavioral Assessment, 5, 349–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colby, A., Kohlberg, L., Speicher, B., Hever, A., Candee, D., Gibbs, J., et al. (1987). The measurement of moral judgment: vol. 1. Theoretical foundations and research validation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dekovic, M., & Janssens, J. M. A. M. (1992). Parents’ child-rearing style and child’s sociometric status. Developmental Psychology, 28, 925–932.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Domitrovich, C. E., & Bierman, K. L. (2001). Parenting practices and child social adjustment: Multiple pathways to influence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47, 235–263.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eagly, A. H. (1995). The science and politics of comparing women and men. American Psychologist, 50, 145–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., Carlo, G., Murphy, B., & Van Court, P. (1995). Prosocial development in late adolescence: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 66, 1179–1197.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. (1998). Prosocial development. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology, vol. 3 (pp. 701–778). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., & McNally, S. (1993). Socialization and mothers’ and adolescents’ empathy-related characteristics. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 3, 171–191.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg, N., & Murphy, B. (1995). Parenting and children’s moral development. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting, vol. 4: Applied and practical parenting (pp. 227–257). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisenberg-Berg, N., & Mussen, P. (1978). Empathy and moral development in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 14, 185–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gecas, V., & Schwalbe, M. L. (1986). Parental behavior and adolescent self-esteem. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 37–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs, J. C., Clark, P. M., Joseph, J. A., Green, J. L., Goodrick, T. S., & Makowski, D. G. (1986). Relations between moral judgment, moral courage, and field independence. Child Development, 57, 185–193.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, R., & Christensen, A. (1985). Observational assessment of marital and family interaction: Methodological considerations. In L. L’Abate (Ed.), The handbook of family psychology and therapy, vol. 2 (pp. 961–988). Homewood, IL: Dorsey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilligan, C., Rogers, A. G., & Tolman, D. L. (Eds) (1991). Women, girls, & psychotherapy: Reframing resistance. [Special issue]. Women & Therapy, 11(3/4).

  • Gunnoe, M. L., Hetherington, E. M., & Reiss, D. (1999). Parental religiosity, parenting style, and adolescent social responsibility. Journal of Early Adolescence, 19, 199–225.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hancock, E. (1989). The girl within. New York: Fawcett Columbine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, D. (1988). A longitudinal study of adolescents’ socialization and identification as predictors of adult moral judgment. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 34, 245–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, C. H., DeWolfe, M., Wozniak, P., & Burts, D. C. (1992). Maternal and paternal disciplinary styles: Relations with preschoolers’ playground behavioral orientations and peer status. Child Development, 63, 879–892.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, D. F., & Fegly, S. (1995). Altruism and caring in adolescence: Relations to self-understanding and social judgment. Child Development, 66, 1346–1359.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hart, C. H., Ladd, G. W., & Burleson, B. R. (1990). Children’s expectations of the outcomes of social strategies: Relations with sociometric status and maternal disciplinary styles. Child Development, 61, 127–137.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henley, N. M. (1977). Body politics: Power, sex, and nonverbal communication. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, J. P., & Lynch, M. E. (1983). The intensification of gender-related role expectations during early adolescence. In J. Brooks-Gunn & A. C. Petersen (Eds.), Girls at puberty: Biological and psychosocial perspectives (pp. 201–228). New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, L. M., Inouye, D., & Siegelman, E. Y. (1979). On averaging judges’ ratings to increase their correlation with an external criterion. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 47, 453–458.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Isley, S. L., O’Neil, R., Clatfelter, D., & Parke, R. D. (1999). Parent and child expressed affect and children’s social competence: Modeling direct and indirect pathways. Developmental Psychology, 35, 547–560.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janssens, J. M. A. M., & Gerris, J. R. M. (1992). Child rearing, empathy and prosocial development. In J. M. A. M. Janssens & J. R. M. Gerris (Eds.), Child rearing: Influence on prosocial and moral development (pp. 57–75). Amsterdam: Swets & Zeitlinger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kagan, J., & Snidman, N. (2004). The long shadow of temperament. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krevans, J., & Gibbs, J. C. (1996). Parents’ use of inductive discipline: Relations to children’s empathy and prosocial behavior. Child Development, 67, 3263–3277.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krupnick, C. G. (1985). Women and men in the classroom: Inequality and its remedies. Teaching and Learning, 1, 18–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladd, G. W., & Price, J. M. (1987). Predicting children’s social and school adjustment following the transition from preschool to kindergarten. Child Development, 58, 1168–1189.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamborn, S. D., Mounts, N. S., Steinberg, L., & Dornbusch, S. M. (1991). Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful families. Child Development, 62, 1049–1065.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leve, L. D., & Fagot, B. I. (1997). Prediction of positive peer relations from observed parent–child interactions. Social Development, 6, 254–269.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lott, B. (1995). Distancing from women: Interpersonal sexist discrimination. In B. Lott & D. Maluso (Eds.), The social psychology of interpersonal discrimination (pp. 12–29). New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mahew, K. P., & Lempers, J. D. (1998). The relation among financial strain, parenting, parent self-esteem, and adolescent self-esteem. Journal of Early Adolescence, 18, 145–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Manscill, C. K., & Rollins, B. C. (1990). Adolescent self-esteem as an intervening variable in the parental behavior and academic achievement relationship. In B. K. Barber & B. C. Rollins (Eds.), Parent–adolescent relationships (pp. 95–118). Lanham, MD: University Press of America.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDaniel, E. L. (1973). Inferred self-concept scale. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mistry, R. S., Vandewater, E. A., Huston, A. C., & McLoyd, V. C. (2002). Economic well-being and children’s social adjustment: The role of family process in an ethnically diverse low-income sample. Child Development, 73, 935–951.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oliner, S. P., & Oliner, P. M. (1988). The altruistic personality: Rescuers of Jews in Nazi Europe. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pipher, M. (1994). Reviving Ophelia: Saving the selves of adolescent girls. New York: Ballantine.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, M. W., Arnold, M. L., Pratt, A. T., & Diessner, R. (1999). Predicting adolescent reasoning from family climate: A longitudinal study. Journal of Early Adolescence, 19, 148–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pratt, M. W., Skoe, E. E., & Arnold, M. L. (2004). Care reasoning development and family socialisation patterns in later adolescence: A longitudinal analysis. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 28, 139–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Putallaz, M. (1987). Maternal behavior and children’s sociometric status. Child Development, 58, 324–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, W., & Strayer, J. (1987). Parents’ responses to the emotional distress of their children: Relations with children’s competence. Developmental Psychology, 23, 415–422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roker, D., Coleman, J., & Player, K. (1996, March). Exploring adolescent altruism: British young people’s involvement in voluntary work and campaigning. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, Boston.

  • Rosenhan, D. L. (1970). The natural socialization of altruistic autonomy. In J. Macaulay & L. Berkowitz (Eds.), Altruism and helping behavior (pp. 251–268). New York: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R. (1973). Estimating effective reliabilities in studies that employ judges’ ratings. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 29, 342–345.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (1998). Temperament. In N. Eisenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (5th ed., pp. 105–176). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rushton, J. P., Brainerd, C. J., & Pressley, M. (1983). Behavioral development and construct validity: The principle of aggregation. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 18–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at fairness: How America’s schools cheat girls. New York: Scribner.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (1999). Relations of peer acceptance, friendship adjustment, and social behavior to moral reasoning in early adolescence. Journal of Early Adolescence, 19, 247–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, J. C., Barton-Henry, M. L., & Pruzinsky, T. (1985). Assessing childrearing behaviors: A comparison of ratings made by mother, father, child, and sibling on the CRPBI. Child Development, 56, 462–479.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Speicher, B. (1994). Family patterns of moral judgment during adolescence and early adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 30, 624–632.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steinglass, P. (1979). The home observation assessment method (HOAM): Real-time naturalistic observation of families in their homes. Family Process, 18, 337–354.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, L. J., & Taylor, J. H. (1991). Family interactions and the development of moral reasoning. Child Development, 62, 264–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wichstrøm, L. (1999). The emergence of gender difference in depressed mood during adolescence: The role of intensified gender socialization. Developmental Psychology, 35, 232–245.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Youniss, J., Bales, S., Christmas-Best, V., Diversi, M., McLaughlin, M., & Silbereisen, R. (2002). Youth civic engagement in the twenty-first century. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12, 121–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., & King, R. (1979). Child rearing and children’s prosocial initiations towards victims of distress. Child Development, 50, 319–330.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, Q., Eisenberg, N., Losoya, S. H., Fabes, R. A., Reiser, M., Guthrie, I. K., et al. (2002). The relations of parental warm and positive expressiveness to children’s empathy-related responding and social functioning: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 73, 893–915.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

This research was supported by Public Health Service grant RO1 MH40740 and an Institutional Award and Dean’s Fund Award from the University of Vermont to the first author. We are grateful to the participating families and the teachers and administrative personnel of the school system in which the study took place, in particular, former assistant superintendent Monica Nelson. We thank Golda Ginsburg and Mavis Milne for their help with the initial data collection, Paula Duncan and Barbara Frankowski for their input into the initial project that provided the first round of data for the present study, and Diana St. Louis for her assistance in preparing the tables.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, USA

    Phyllis Bronstein & Michelle L. Knolls

  2. Genest Psychological Services, Halifax, NS, Canada

    Barbara J. Fox

  3. New England Institute of Addiction Studies, Augusta, ME, USA

    Jody L. Kamon

Authors
  1. Phyllis Bronstein
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Barbara J. Fox
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jody L. Kamon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michelle L. Knolls
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Phyllis Bronstein.

Appendix

Appendix

Subscales of the Moral Courage Questionnaire

Moral Courage Items

When I hear someone make a derogatory remark or joke about some person or group, I say something to challenge it.

I take the lead in group situations when there is an important issue at stake.

I take action (like writing letters, signing petitions, or being in a demonstration) about things I think are unjust or immoral in the world around me.

If a person in authority, like a teacher, coach, or boss, makes a prejudiced remark or joke, I say something about it to them.

In a group situation, I try to go along with the majority, rather than be seen as being difficult or weird. [Reverse scored.]

If I see someone being picked on or bullied, I try to stop it.

I try to get others involved in thinking about and taking action on important issues.

When I’m angry at a friend, I try to talk with him/her about it to resolve the problem.

Moral Reticence Items

When someone says something dumb or mean, I let it pass, rather than risk making them angry.

When my friends disagree with my viewpoint, I let it pass rather than try to change their minds.

When I see someone being treated unfairly, I feel like there is nothing much I can do about it.

When I feel strongly about something, I let people know, even if it will upset them. [Reverse scored.]

When I’ve been hurt by someone, I don’t let them know how I feel.

If my friends all think something is okay to do, I go along with it, even if I’m not sure it’s the right thing.

If I hear someone say something bad about a friend of mine, I speak up in my friend’s behalf. [Reverse scored.]

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bronstein, P., Fox, B.J., Kamon, J.L. et al. Parenting and Gender as Predictors of Moral Courage in Late Adolescence: A Longitudinal Study. Sex Roles 56, 661–674 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9182-8

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-007-9182-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation