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Integrating energy and land-use planning: socio-metabolic profiles along the rural–urban continuum in Catalonia (Spain)

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Abstract

Abandoning fossil fuels and increasingly relying on low-density, land-intensive renewable energy will increase demand for land, affecting current global and regional rural–urban relationships. Over the past two decades, rural–urban relationships all over the world have witnessed unprecedented changes that have rendered their boundaries blurred and have lead to the emergence of “new ruralities.” In this paper, we analyze the current profiles of electricity generation and consumption in relation to sociodemographic variables related to the use of time and land across the territory of Catalonia, Spain. Through a clustering procedure based on multivariate statistical analysis, we found that electricity consumption is related to functional specialization in the roles undertaken by different types of municipalities in the urban system. Municipality types have distinctive metabolic profiles in different sectors depending on their industrial, services or residential role. Villages’ metabolism is influenced by urban sprawl and industrial specialization, reflecting current “new ruralities.” Segregation between work activity and residence increases both overall electricity consumption and its rate (per hour) and density (per hectare) of dissipation. A sustainable spatial organization of societal activities without the use of fossil fuels or nuclear energy would require huge structural and sociodemographic changes to reduce energy demand and adapt it to regionally available renewable energy.

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Notes

  1. See Sect. 3, about methods for details.

  2. Throughout the paper, we refer to urban hierarchy as the structure of the network of cities in terms of the relative socioeconomic and demographic importance of the group of cities that form the urban system and their relationships. Thus, the urban hierarchy of an urban system based on polycentric compact medium sized cities and villages with mixed uses is qualitatively different than that of a central big city, surrounded by a dispersed conurbation of a low-density mono-functional urban sprawl.

  3. High correlation between energy consumption and GDP, in Catalonia and Spain, as in many other western industrialized countries explains why growing GDP, despite low productivity of labor, has led to growing energy consumption, see Ramos-Martín et al. 2009.

  4. An aging population and the increasing isolation of citizens in single-person households puts a growing burden either on unpaid work for maintenance and care, or through its substitution by services bought in the market which would increase the overall energy consumption (D'Alisa and Cattaneo 2012).

  5. Although Spain is net exporter of electricity, providing 8.333 Gwh to France in 2010, within Spain, Catalonia is a net importer of electricity, demanding from other regions of Spain 5.545 Gwh in 2010 (REE 2010).

  6. The historical loss of energy efficiency of agriculture is expressed by the progressive reduction of the energy return on investment (EROI) from mid-nineteenth century to present, brought about by the introduction of fossil fuel inputs and the functional disconnection of forest, pasture and agricultural lands previously managed integrally (Cussó et al 2006, Marull et al 2007).

  7. The growth of built-up areas and infrastructure sites occupying more and more space in the land matrix with the rest of the landscape remaining residual in the Barcelona Metropolitan Region (BMR) has reduced the "landscape efficiency", the ability of the landscape to satisfy human needs while maintaining the healthiest ecological patterns and processes, such as ecological connectivity (Marull et al 2010).

  8. As later shown in Table 6, on average, the maximum electricity consumption in agriculture is around 10 % in small villages.

  9. We consider forests and water bodies as "non-colonized land" with the aim to follow the initially developed cathegories of MuSIASEM. However, in our case, a Mediterranean area in South Europe, forests and water bodies are strongly influenced by human activities. Here, "non-colonized" is used with the meaning of non-agricultural, non-urbanized land.

  10. Catalonia has 946 municipalities. Barcelona, however, was left aside due to the relative big difference in size as compared with all the rest of municipalities and also due to the lack of disaggregated data about electricity consumption by neighborhoods. Its initial inclusion distorted any meaningful result. Barcelona, with 1,503,884 inhabitants in 2001 (23 % of Catalonia's population), was about six to eight times larger than the neighboring second and third most populated cities of Catalonia (Hospitalet de Llobregat and Badalona), and ten times larger than the other three province capitals of Catalonia: Tarragona, Lleida and Girona.

  11. Although there is demographic data available for 2007, it is not disaggregated to the required level of detail. The most recent demographic data, for 2011, while suitably disaggreated, do not include electricity consumption, and we have used the most recent, detailed land use map, which is for the year 2002. We have used the most recently available energy generation data, i.e., 2007, for the purpose of interpreting implications in our summary and conclusions.

  12. Since detailed data about differences in the number and use of electric appliances at the level of municipality are not available in IDESCAT 2001, we cannot assess their influence in explaining this substantial difference of EMRHH in coastal touristic areas. However, our results show statistically significant differences between higher incomes, higher proportion of single-person households, higher proportion of second homes and the lower urban densities in touristic and coastal suburban towns. Higher incomes and higher proportions of single-person households in these municipalities seem plausible explanations. As will be explained subsequently, the higher proportion of single-person households correlates with higher needs for appliances for more people who live alone. The higher proportion of second homes, however, does not necessarily explain the higher consumption, and it could even entail some bias in the results. People on vacation are not registered in the census as permanent dwellers and could not be accounted in the calculation, leading us to attribute the consumption of both permanent dwellers and vacationers, to only the dwellers. However, we think that this bias is distributed all along the sample. All municipalities with second homes will bear the same potential bias. Regarding lower urban densities, other studies, such as Tello (2005), have shown how the electricity consumption per capita, the number of cars per capita and the water consumption per capita are strongly correlated with low-density urbanization. This helps to explain the high level of electricity consumption in the household sector.

  13. Technological progresses in transport and telecommunications have made it less costly for firms to separate their production facilities from their management headquarters. Manufacturing sites are clustered in smaller but more numerous cities, while business and services centers are few and large cities that concentrate abundant business service employment (Duranton and Puga 2005).

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Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Joan Esteve, Albert Casanovas, Meritxell Baraut and Mercé García from the Catalan Institute of Energy (ICAEN), Dolors Olivares, Marta Masats and Maite Caramazana from the Catalan Institute of Statistics (IDESCAT) for their kind delivery of the data we requested. We also thank the anonymous reviewers for their careful reading. Their insights helped to improve substantially the text. We would like also thank Joan Martinez-Alier for his intellectual support. We also would like to thank Arnim Scheidel, Violeta Cabello and Alevgul Sorman who provided helpful comments and insights to previous versions of this paper. We thank Marta Borrós who helped in GIS techniques and maps elaboration and Sara Mingorría who helped in statistical analysis. The fourth author acknowledges support from (i) the Consolidated Research Group on “Economic Institutions, Quality of Life and the Environment,” SGR2009–00962; and (ii) the Spanish Ministry for Science and Innovation project HAR-2010-20684-C02-01. The first author acknowledges support from the Spanish Government funded research project Metabolismo Social y Conflictos Ambientales (CSO2010 21979).

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  1. FLACSO Ecuador - La Pradera, E7-174 y Av. Diego de Almagro-PBX, Quito, Ecuador

    Pere Ariza-Montobbio

  2. Institut de Ciència i Tecnologia Ambientals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Edifici C, 08193, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Spain

    Pere Ariza-Montobbio, Katharine N. Farrell, Gonzalo Gamboa & Jesus Ramos-Martin

  3. Division of Resource Economics, Department of Agricultural Economics, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden, 6, 10099, Berlin, Germany

    Katharine N. Farrell

  4. Departament d’Economia i d’Història Econòmica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, EdificiB, 08193, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallès), Barcelona, Spain

    Jesus Ramos-Martin

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Ariza-Montobbio, P., Farrell, K.N., Gamboa, G. et al. Integrating energy and land-use planning: socio-metabolic profiles along the rural–urban continuum in Catalonia (Spain). Environ Dev Sustain 16, 925–956 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-014-9533-x

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