Abstract
Twenty trace elements in fine particulate matters (i.e., PM2.5) at urban Chengdu, a southwest megacity of China, were determined to study the characteristics, sources and human health risk of particulate toxic heavy metals. This work mainly focused on eight toxic heavy metal elements (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn). The average concentration of PM2.5 was 165.1 ± 84.7 µg m−3 during the study period, significantly exceeding the National Ambient Air Quality Standard (35 µg m−3 in annual average). The particulate heavy metal pollution was very serious in which Cd and As concentrations in PM2.5 significantly surpassed the WHO standard. The enrichment factor values of heavy metals were typically higher than 10, suggesting that they were mainly influenced by anthropogenic sources. More specifically, the Cr, Mn and Ni were slightly enriched, Cu was highly enriched, while As, Cd, Pb and Zn were severely enriched. The results of correlation analysis showed that Cd may come from metallurgy and mechanical manufacturing emissions, and the other metals were predominately influenced by traffic emissions and coal combustion. The results of health risk assessment indicated that As, Mn and Cd would pose a significant non-carcinogenic health risk to both children and adults, while Cr would cause carcinogenic risk. Other toxic heavy metals were within a safe level.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Bell, M. L., Ebisu, K., Peng, R. D., Samet, J. M., & Dominici, F. (2009). Hospital admissions and chemical composition of fine particle air pollution. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 179, 1115–1120.
Bellinger, D. C. (2005). Teratogen update: lead and pregnancy. Birth Defects Research, Part A: Clinical and Molecular Teratology, 73(6), 409–420.
Diaz, R. V., & Dominguez, E. R. (2009). Health risk by inhalation of PM2.5 in the metropolitan zone of the city of Mexico. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 72(3), 866–871.
Dubey, B., Pal, A. K., & Singh, G. (2012). Trace metal composition of airborne particulate matter in the coal mining and non-mining areas of Dhanbad Region, Jharkhand, India. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 3, 238–246.
Gao, Y. R., Arimoto, R., Duce, R. A., Lee, D. S., & Zhou, M. Y. (1992). Input of atmospheric trace elements and mineral matter to the Yellow Sea during the spring of a low-dust year. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres (1984–2012), 97(D4), 3767–3777.
Gao, J. J., Tian, H. Z., Cheng, K., Lu, L., Wang, Y. X., Wu, Y., et al. (2014). Seasonal and spatial variation of trace elements in multi-size airborne particulate matters of Beijing, China: mass concentration, enrichment characteristics, source apportionment, chemical speciation and bioavailability. Atmospheric Environment, 99, 257–265.
Garza, A., Vega, R., & Soto, E. (2006). Cellular mechanisms of lead neurotoxicity. Medical Science Monitor, 12(3), RA57–RA65.
Greene, N. A., & Morris, V. R. (2006). Assessment of public health risks associated with atmospheric exposure to PM2.5 in Washington, DC, USA. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 3(1), 86–97.
Gu, J. X., Du, S. Y., Han, D. W., Hou, L. J., Yi, J., Xu, J., et al. (2014). Major chemical compositions, possible sources, and mass closure analysis of PM2.5 in Jinan, China. Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health, 7, 251–262.
Han, Y. J., Kim, H. W., Cho, S. H., Kim, P. R., & Kim, W. J. (2015). Metallic elements in PM2.5 in different functional areas of Korea: concentrations and source identification. Atmospheric Research, 153, 416–428.
Hu, X., Zhang, Y., Ding, Z. H., Wang, T. J., Lian, H. Z., Sun, Y. Y., et al. (2012). Bioaccessibility and health risk of arsenic and heavy metals (Cd Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn and Mn) in TSP and PM2.5 in Nanjing, China. Atmospheric Environment, 57, 146–152.
Huang, W., Cao, J. J., Tao, Y. B., Dai, L. Z., Lu, S. E., Hou, B., et al. (2012). Seasonal variation of chemical species associated with short-term mortality effects of PM2.5 in Xi’an, a central city in China. American Journal of Epidemiology, 175(6), 556–566.
Jarup, L. (2003). Hazards of heavy metal contamination. British Medical Bulletin, 68(1), 167–182.
Johansson, C., Norman, M., & Burman, L. (2009). Road traffic emission factors for heavy metals. Atmospheric Environment, 43, 4681–4688.
Kampa, M., & Castanas, E. (2008). Human health effects of air pollution. Environmental Pollution, 151(2), 362–367.
Khodeir, M., Shamy, M., Alghamdi, M., Zhong, M. H., Sun, H., Costa, M., et al. (2012). Source apportionment and elemental composition of PM2.5 and PM10 in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia. Atmospheric. Pollution Research, 3(3), 331–340.
Kim, J. Y., Kim, K. W., Ahn, J. S., Ko, I., & Lee, C. H. (2005). Investigation and risk assessment modeling of As and other heavy metals contamination around five abandoned metal mines in Korea. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 27(2), 193–203.
Kulshrestha, A., Satsangi, P. G., Masih, J., & Taneja, A. (2009). Metal concentration of PM2.5 and PM10 particles and seasonal variations in urban and rural environment of Agra, India. Science of the Total Environment, 407, 6196–6204.
Li, P. H., Kong, S. F., Geng, C. M., Han, B., Lu, B., Sun, R. F., et al. (2013). Assessing the hazardous risks of vehicle inspection workers’ exposure to particulate heavy metals in their work places. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 13(1), 255–265.
Massey, D. D., Kulshrestha, A., & Taneja, A. (2013). Particulate matter concentrations and their related metal toxicity in rural residential environment of semi-arid region of India. Atmospheric Environment, 67, 278–286.
Olson, D. A., Turlington, J., Duvall, R. M., McDow, S. R., Stevens, C. D., & Williams, R. (2008). Indoor and outdoor concentrations of organic and inorganic molecular markers: source apportionment of PM2.5 using low-volume samples. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 1742–1751.
Paatero, P., Hopke, P. K., Begum, B. A., & Biswas, S. K. (2005). A graphical diagnostic method for assessing the rotation in factor analytical models of atmospheric pollution. Atmospheric Environment, 39, 193–201.
Park, E. J., Kim, D. S., & Park, K. (2008). Monitoring of ambient particles and heavy metals in a residential area of Seoul, Korea. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 137(1–3), 441–449.
Pope, C. A. (2000). Epidemiology of fine particulate air pollution and human health: biologic mechanisms and who’s at risk? Environmental Health Perspectives, 108(4), 713–722.
Pope, C. A., Burnett, R. T., Thun, M. J., Calle, E. E., Krewski, D., Ito, K., et al. (2002). Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. Journal of American Medical Association, 287(9), 1132–1141.
Smichowski, P., Gomez, D. R., Dawidowski, L. E., Gine, F. M., Bellato, A. C., & Reich, S. L. (2004). Monitoring trace metals in urban aerosols from Buenos Aires city. Determination by plasma-based techniques. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 6(4), 286–294.
Song, Y., Xie, S. D., Zhang, Y. H., Zeng, L. M., Salmon, L. G., & Zheng, M. (2006). Source apportionment of PM2.5 in Beijing using principal component analysis/absolute principal component scores and UNMIX. Science of the Total Environment, 372, 278–286.
Sun, Y. Y., Hu, X., Wu, J. C., Lian, H. Z., & Chen, Y. J. (2014). Fractionation and health risks of atmospheric particle-bound As and heavy metals in summer and winter. Science of the Total Environment, 493, 487–494.
Sun, Y. B., Zhou, Q. X., Xie, X. K., & Liu, R. (2010). Spatial, sources and risk assessment of heavy metal contamination of urban soils in typical regions of Shenyang, China. Journal of Hazard Material, 174(1–3), 455–462.
Tan, J. H., Duan, J. H., Ma, Y. L., Yang, F. M., Cheng, Y., He, K. B., et al. (2014). Source of atmospheric heavy metals in winter in Foshan, China. Science of the Total Environment, 493, 262–270.
Tang, W. C., Jin, L. X., & Zhou, X. M. (2005). The research and implications of Chengdu’s soil element geochemical reference value. Geophysical and Geochemical Exploration, 29(1), 71–83.
Tao, J., Zhang, L. M., Engling, G., Zhang, R. J., Yang, Y. H., Cao, J. J., et al. (2013). Chemical composition of PM2.5 in an urban environment in Chengdu, China: importance of springtime dust storms and biomass burning. Atmospheric Research, 122, 270–283.
Thomaidis, N. S., Bakeas, E. B., & Siskos, P. A. (2003). Characterization of lead, cadmium, arsenic and nickel in PM2.5 particles in the Athens atmosphere, Greece. Chemosphere, 52(6), 959–966.
Tian, H. Z., Lu, L., Cheng, K., Hao, J. M., Zhao, D., Wang, Y., et al. (2012). Anthropogenic atmospheric nickel emissions and its distribution characteristics in China. Science of the Total Environment, 417, 148–157.
Tian, H. Z., Wang, Y., Xue, Z. G., Qu, Y. P., Chai, F. H., & Hao, J. M. (2011). Atmospheric emissions estimation of Hg, As, and Se from coal-fired power plants in China, 2007. Science of the Total Environment, 409, 3078–3081.
Wang, X. H., Bi, X. H., Sheng, G. Y., & Fu, J. M. (2006). Chemical composition and sources of PM10 and PM2.5 aerosols in Guangzhou, China. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 119(1–3), 425–439.
Wang, Q. Y., Cao, J. J., Shen, Z. J., Tao, J., Xiao, S., Luo, L., et al. (2013a). Chemical characteristics of PM2.5 during dust storms and air pollution events in Chengdu, China. Particuology, 11(1), 70–77.
Wang, J., Hu, Z. M., Chen, Y. Y., Chen, Z. L., & Xu, S. Y. (2013b). Contamination characteristics and possible sources of PM10 and PM2.5 in different functional areas of Shanghai, China. Atmospheric Environment, 68, 221–229.
Xia, L. L., & Gao, Y. (2011). Characterization of trace elements in PM2.5 aerosols in the vicinity of highways in northeast New Jersey in the U.S. east coast. Atmospheric. Pollution Research, 2(1), 34–44.
Xu, H. M., Cao, J. J., Ho, K. F., Ding, H., Han, Y. M., Wang, G. H., et al. (2012). Lead concentrations in fine particulate matter after the phasing out of leaded gasoline in Xi’an, China. Atmospheric Environment, 46, 217–224.
Yadav, S., & Satsangi, P. G. (2013). Characterization of particulate matter and its related metal toxicity in an urban location in South West India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185, 7365–7379.
Yang, F., Tan, J., Zhao, Q., Du, Z., He, K., Ma, Y., et al. (2011). Characteristics of PM2.5 speciation in representative megacities and across China. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 11(11), 5207–5219.
Yang, Y. J., Wang, Y. S., Wan, T. X., Li, W., Zhao, Y. N., & Li, L. (2009). Elemental composition of PM2.5 and PM10 at Mount Gongga in China during 2006. Atmospheric Research, 93(4), 801–810.
Zhang, N., Han, B., He, F., Xu, J., Niu, C., Zhou, J., et al. (2014). Characterization, health risk of heavy metals, and source apportionment of atmospheric PM2.5 to children in summer and winter: an exposure panel study in Tianjin, China. Air Quality, Atmosphere and Health,. doi:10.1007/s11869-014-0289-0.
Zhou, S. Z., Yuan, Q., Li, W. J., Lu, Y. L., Zhang, Y. M., & Wang, W. X. (2014). Trace metals in atmospheric fine particles in one industrial urban city: spatial variations, sources, and health implications. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 26(1), 205–213.
Acknowledgments
The work was supported by Chemical Synthesis and Pollution Control Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province (CSPC2014-4-2) and Science and Technology Department of Sichuan Province (2015JY0094). We would like to thank Dr. Jun Tao from South China Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Environmental Protection for his assistance in field sampling and laboratory analysis.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Li, Y., Zhang, Z., Liu, H. et al. Characteristics, sources and health risk assessment of toxic heavy metals in PM2.5 at a megacity of southwest China. Environ Geochem Health 38, 353–362 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-015-9722-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-015-9722-z