Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The genomic basis of cerebral palsy: a HuGE systematic literature review

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Human Genetics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Cerebral palsy has been associated with a number of candidate genes. To date, no systematic review has been conducted to synthesise genetic polymorphism associations with cerebral palsy. We apply the HuGE NET guidelines to search PubMed and EMBASE databases for publications investigating single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and cerebral palsy outcome. 22 papers were identified and are discussed in this review. Candidate genes were grouped as (1) thrombophilic, (2) cytokine, (3) apolipoprotein E or (4) other SNPs, largely related to cardiovascular physiology/pathophysiology and the functioning of the immune system. Of the studies identified, cohorts were usually small, without adequate control and ethnically diverse, making direct comparison between studies difficult. The most promising candidate genes include factor V Leiden, methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase, lymphotoxin-α, tumour necrosis factor-α, eNOS and mannose binding lectin. Large case–control studies are needed to confirm these candidates with attention given to cohort ethnicity, cerebral palsy subtype analysis and possible multiple gene and gene–environment interactions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Protein annotation is used where studies do not report specific nucleotide substitutions.

References

  • Arbour NC, Lorenz E, Schutte BC, Zabner J, Kline JN, Jones M, Frees K, Watt JL, Schwartz DA (2000) TLR4 mutations are associated with endotoxin hyporesponsiveness in humans. Nat Genet 25(2):187–191

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ates O, Musellim B, Ongen G, Topal-Sarikaya A (2008) Interleukin-10 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha gene polymorphisms in tuberculosis. J Clin Immunol 28(3):232–236

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Atochin DN, Demchenko IT, Astern J, Boso AE, Piantadosi CA, Huang PL (2003) Contributions of endothelial and neuronal nitric oxide synthases to cerebrovascular responses to hyperoxia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 23(10):1219–1226

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bashiri A, Burstein E, Mazor M (2006) Cerebral palsy and fetal inflammatory response syndrome: a review. J Perinat Med 34(1):5–12

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braun JS, Hoffmann O, Schickhaus M, Freyer D, Dagand E, Bermpohl D, Mitchell TJ, Bechmann I, Weber JR (2007) Pneumolysin causes neuronal cell death through mitochondrial damage. Infect Immun 75(9):4245–4254

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chauhan M, McGuire W (2008) Interleukin-6 (-174C) polymorphism and the risk of sepsis in very-low-birth-weight infants: meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed

  • Christen WG, Ajani UA, Glynn RJ, Hennekens CH (2000) Blood levels of homocysteine and increased risks of cardiovascular disease: causal or casual? Arch Intern Med 160(4):422–434

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chudakova DA, Minushkina LO, Zateishchikov DA, Nosik VV (2004) Association of polymorphic marker G(-455)A of gene FGB with coronary artery disease. Genetika 40(10):1406–1409

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cipollone F, Toniato E, Martinotti S, Fazia M, Iezzi A, Cuccurullo C, Pini B, Ursi S, Vitullo G, Averna M et al (2004) A polymorphism in the cyclooxygenase 2 gene as an inherited protective factor against myocardial infarction and stroke. JAMA 291(18):2221–2228

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curry CJ, Bhullar S, Holmes J, Delozier CD, Roeder ER, Hutchison HT (2007) Risk factors for perinatal arterial stroke: a study of 60 mother-child pairs. Pediatr Neurol 37(2):99–107

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson SJ, Wiman B, Hamsten A, Green F, Humphries S, Henney AM (1993) The two allele sequences of a common polymorphism in the promoter of the plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) gene respond differently to interleukin-1 in HepG2 cells. J Biol Chem 268(15):10739–10745

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dekker G, de Vries J, Doelitzsch P, Huijgens P, von Blomberg B, Jakobs C, van Geijn H (1995) Underlying disorders associated with severe early-onset preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 173:1042–1048

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson J (1994) Viral teratology. In: Gonik B (ed) Viral diseases in pregnancy. Springer, Heidelberg

  • Dordelmann M, Kerk J, Dressler F, Brinkhaus MJ, Bartels DB, Dammann CE, Dork T, Dammann O (2006) Interleukin-10 high producer allele and ultrasound-defined periventricular white matter abnormalities in preterm infants: a preliminary study. Neuropediatrics 37(3):130–136

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fattal-Valevski A, Kenet G, Kupferminc MJ, Mesterman R, Leitner Y, Rimon E, Harel S, Hassner A (2005) Role of thrombophilic risk factors in children with non-stroke cerebral palsy. Thromb Res 116(2):133–137

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson CS, MacLennan AH, Hague WM, Haan EA, Priest K, Chan A, Dekker GA (2005a) Associations between inherited thrombophilia, gestational age, and cerebral palsy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 193(4):1437

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson CS, MacLennan AH, Hague WM, Haan EA, Priest K, Chan A, Dekker GA (2005b) Associations between inherited thrombophilias, gestational age, and cerebral palsy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 193(4)

  • Gibson CS, MacLennan AH, Goldwater PN, Haan EA, Priest K, Dekker GA (2006a) The association between inherited cytokine polymorphisms and cerebral palsy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 194(3):674 e1–674 e11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson CS, MacLennan AH, Goldwater PN, Haan EA, Priest K, Dekker GA (2006b) The association between inherited cytokine polymorphisms and cerebral palsy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 194(3)

  • Gibson CS, Maclennan AH, Dekker GA, Goldwater PN, Sullivan TR, Munroe DJ, Tsang S, Stewart C, Nelson KB (2008a) Candidate genes and cerebral palsy: a population-based study. Pediatrics 122(5):1079–1085

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gibson CS, MacLennan AH, Goldwater PN, Haan EA, Priest K, Dekker GA (2008b) Mannose-binding lectin haplotypes may be associated with cerebral palsy only after perinatal viral exposure. Am J Obstet Gynecol 198(5):509 e1–509 e8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gotsch F, Romero R, Kusanovic JP, Mazaki-Tovi S, Pineles BL, Erez O, Espinoza J, Hassan SS (2007) The fetal inflammatory response syndrome. Clin Obstet Gynecol 50(3):652–683

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goyette P, Sumner JS, Milos R, Duncan AM, Rosenblatt DS, Matthews RG, Rozen R (1994) Human methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase: isolation of cDNA, mapping and mutation identification. Nat Genet 7(2):195–200

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grether JK, Nelson KB (1997) Maternal infection and cerebral palsy in infants of normal birth weight. JAMA 278(3):207–211

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halliday JL, Reddihough D, Byron K, Ekert H, Ditchfield M (2000) Hemiplegic cerebral palsy and the factor V Leiden mutation. J Med Genet 37(10):787–789

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harding DR, Dhamrait S, Whitelaw A, Humphries SE, Marlow N, Montgomery HE (2004) Does interleukin-6 genotype influence cerebral injury or developmental progress after preterm birth? Pediatrics 114(4):941–947

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harding DR, Humphries SE, Whitelaw A, Marlow N, Montgomery HE (2007) Cognitive outcome and cyclo-oxygenase-2 gene (-765 G/C) variation in the preterm infant. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 92(2):F108–F112

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harum KH, Hoon AH Jr, Kato GJ, Casella JF, Breiter SN, Johnston MV (1999) Homozygous factor-V mutation as a genetic cause of perinatal thrombosis and cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 41(11):777–780

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heinzmann A, Ahlert I, Kurz T, Berner R, Deichmann KA (2004) Association study suggests opposite effects of polymorphisms within IL8 on bronchial asthma and respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 114(3):671–676

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hemminki K, Li X, Sundquist K, Sundquist J (2007) High familial risks for cerebral palsy implicate partial heritable aetiology. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 21(3):235–241

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henry M, Chomiki N, Scarabin PY, Alessi MC, Peiretti F, Arveiler D, Ferrieres J, Evans A, Amouyel P, Poirier O et al (1997) Five frequent polymorphisms of the PAI-1 gene: lack of association between genotypes, PAI activity, and triglyceride levels in a healthy population. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 17(5):851–858

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman M, Cooper ST (1995) Thrombin enhances monocyte secretion of tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1 beta by two distinct mechanisms. Blood Cells Mol Dis 21(2):156–167

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Holm PI, Hustad S, Ueland PM, Vollset SE, Grotmol T, Schneede J (2007) Modulation of the homocysteine-betaine relationship by methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase 677 C->t genotypes and B-vitamin status in a large-scale epidemiological study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92(4):1535–1541

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hunault M, Arbini AA, Lopaciuk S, Carew JA, Bauer KA (1997) The Arg353Gln polymorphism reduces the level of coagulation factor VII. In vivo and in vitro studies. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 17(11):2825–2829

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsson B, Hagberg G, Hagberg B, Ladfors L, Niklasson A, Hagberg H (2002) Cerebral palsy in preterm infants: a population-based case–control study of antenatal and intrapartal risk factors. Acta Paediatr 91(8):946–951

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobsson B, Ahlin K, Francis A, Hagberg G, Hagberg H, Gardosi J (2008) Cerebral palsy and restricted growth status at birth: population-based case–control study. BJOG 115(10):1250–1255

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalafatis M, Bertina RM, Rand MD, Mann KG (1995) Characterization of the molecular defect in factor VR506Q. J Biol Chem 270(8):4053–4057

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kilpinen S, Hulkkonen J, Wang XY, Hurme M (2001) The promoter polymorphism of the interleukin-6 gene regulates interleukin-6 production in neonates but not in adults. Eur Cytokine Netw 12(1):62–68

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kist WJ, Janssen NG, Kalk JJ, Hague WM, Dekker GA, de Vries JI (2008) Thrombophilias and adverse pregnancy outcome––a confounded problem. Thromb Haemost 99(1):77–85

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kroeger KM, Carville KS, Abraham LJ (1997) The -308 tumor necrosis factor-alpha promoter polymorphism effects transcription. Mol Immunol 34(5):391–399

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuroda MM, Weck ME, Sarwark JF, Hamidullah A, Wainwright MS (2007) Association of apolipoprotein E genotype and cerebral palsy in children. Pediatrics 119(2):306–313

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus M, Hajeer AH, Turner D, Sinnott P, Worthington J, Ollier WE, Hutchinson IV (1997) Genetic variation in the interleukin 10 gene promoter and systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol 24(12):2314–2317

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lynch JK, Nelson KB, Curry CJ, Grether JK (2001) Cerebrovascular disorders in children with the factor V Leiden mutation. J Child Neurol 16(10):735–744

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McCarron MO, Delong D, Alberts MJ (1999) APOE genotype as a risk factor for ischemic cerebrovascular disease: a meta-analysis. Neurology 53(6):1308–1311

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McGuire W, Hill AV, Allsopp CE, Greenwood BM, Kwiatkowski D (1994) Variation in the TNF-alpha promoter region associated with susceptibility to cerebral malaria. Nature 371(6497):508–510

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McMichael GL, Gibson CS, Goldwater PN, Haan EA, Priest K, Dekker GA, MacLennan AH (2008) Association between apolipoprotein E genotype and cerebral palsy is not confirmed in a Caucasian population. Hum Genet 124(4):411–416

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Medina P, Navarro S, Estelles A, Vaya A, Woodhams B, Mira Y, Villa P, Migaud-Fressart M, Ferrando F, Aznar J et al (2004) Contribution of polymorphisms in the endothelial protein C receptor gene to soluble endothelial protein C receptor and circulating activated protein C levels, and thrombotic risk. Thromb Haemost 91(5):905–911

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meirelles Kalil Pessoa de B, Rodrigues CJ, de Barros TE, Bevilacqua RG (2000) Presence of apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele in cerebral palsy. J Pediatr Orthop 20(6):786–789

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore KW, O’Garra A, l Malefyt R, Vieira P, Mosmann TR (1993) Interleukin-10. Annu Rev Immunol 11:165–190

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson KB (2002) The epidemiology of cerebral palsy in term infants. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 8(3):146–150

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson KB (2007) Perinatal ischemic stroke. Stroke 38(2 Suppl):742–745

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson KB, Grether JK (1999) Causes of cerebral palsy. Curr Opin Pediatr 11(6):487–491

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson KB, Lynch JK (2004) Stroke in newborn infants. Lancet Neurol 3(3):150–158

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson KB, Dambrosia JM, Iovannisci DM, Cheng S, Grether JK, Lammer E (2005) Genetic polymorphisms and cerebral palsy in very preterm infants. Pediatr Res 57(4):494–499

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ozaki K, Ohnishi Y, Iida A, Sekine A, Yamada R, Tsunoda T, Sato H, Hori M, Nakamura Y, Tanaka T (2002) Functional SNPs in the lymphotoxin-alpha gene that are associated with susceptibility to myocardial infarction. Nat Genet 32(4):650–654

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Papafili A, Hill MR, Brull DJ, McAnulty RJ, Marshall RP, Humphries SE, Laurent GJ (2002) Common promoter variant in cyclooxygenase-2 represses gene expression: evidence of role in acute-phase inflammatory response. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 22(10):1631–1636

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pociot F, Molvig J, Wogensen L, Worsaae H, Nerup J (1992) A TaqI polymorphism in the human interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) gene correlates with IL-1 beta secretion in vitro. Eur J Clin Invest 22(6):396–402

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Quek SC, Low PS, Saha N, Heng CK (2006) The effects of three factor VII polymorphisms on factor VII coagulant levels in healthy Singaporean Chinese, Malay and Indian newborns. Ann Hum Genet 70(Pt 6):951–957

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reid S, Halliday J, Ditchfield M, Ekert H, Byron K, Glynn A, Petrou V, Reddihough D (2006) Factor V Leiden mutation: a contributory factor for cerebral palsy? Dev Med Child Neurol 48(1):14–19

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robertson L, Wu O, Langhorne P, Twaddle S, Clark P, Lowe GD, Walker ID, Greaves M, Brenkel I, Regan L et al (2006) Thrombophilia in pregnancy: a systematic review. Br J Haematol 132(2):171–196

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers GM, Kane WH (1986) Activation of endogenous factor V by a homocysteine-induced vascular endothelial cell activator. J Clin Invest 77(6):1909–1916

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenbaum P, Paneth N, Leviton A, Goldstein M, Bax M, Damiano D, Dan B, Jacobsson B (2007) A report: the definition and classification of cerebral palsy April 2006. Dev Med Child Neurol Suppl 109:8–14

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sabroe I, Dower SK, Whyte MK (2005) The role of Toll-like receptors in the regulation of neutrophil migration, activation, and apoptosis. Clin Infect Dis 41(Suppl 7):S421–S426

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saunders AM, Strittmatter WJ, Schmechel D, George-Hyslop PH, Pericak-Vance MA, Joo SH, Rosi BL, Gusella JF, Crapper-MacLachlan DR, Alberts MJ et al (1993) Association of apolipoprotein E allele epsilon 4 with late-onset familial and sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 43(8):1467–1472

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scantlebury MH, David M, Carmant L (2002) Association between factor V Leiden mutation and the hemiconvulsion, hemiplegia, and epilepsy syndrome: report of two cases. J Child Neurol 17(9):713–717

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Senbil N, Yuksel D, Yilmaz D, Gurer YKY (2007) Prothrombotic risk factors in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Pediatr Int 49(5):600–602

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RA, Skelton M, Howard M, Levene M (2001) Is thrombophilia a factor in the development of hemiplegic cerebral palsy? Dev Med Child Neurol 43(11):724–730

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Srinivasan SR, Ehnholm C, Elkasabany A, Berenson G (1999) Influence of apolipoprotein E polymorphism on serum lipids and lipoprotein changes from childhood to adulthood: the Bogalusa heart study. Atherosclerosis 143(2):435–443

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steiner M, Hodes MZ, Shreve M, Sundberg S, Edson JR (2000) Postoperative stroke in a child with cerebral palsy heterozygous for factor V Leiden. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 22(3):262–264

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi M, Mori S, Shigeta S, Fujita T (2007) Role of MBL-associated serine protease (MASP) on activation of the lectin complement pathway. Adv Exp Med Biol 598:93–104

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson SG, Kienast J, Pyke SD, Haverkate F, van de Loo JC (1995) Hemostatic factors and the risk of myocardial infarction or sudden death in patients with angina pectoris. European concerted action on thrombosis and disabilities Angina Pectoris study group. N Engl J Med 332(10):635–641

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thorarensen O, Ryan S, Hunter J, Younkin DP (1997) Factor V Leiden mutation: an unrecognized cause of hemiplegic cerebral palsy, neonatal stroke, and placental thrombosis. Ann Neurol 42(3):372–375

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorngren-Jerneck K, Herbst A (2006) Perinatal factors associated with cerebral palsy in children born in Sweden. Obstet Gynecol 108(6):1499–1505

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vagiakou EA, Voudris KA, Dimitriou Y, Skardoutsou A, Mastroyianni S (2006) Different additional risk factors for cerebral infarctions associated with the factor V Leiden mutation in a family. J Child Neurol 21(10):903–907

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vigneswaran R, Aitchison SJ, McDonald HM, Khong TY, Hiller JE (2004) Cerebral palsy and placental infection: a case–cohort study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 4(1):1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walker I (2000) Thrombophilia in pregnancy. J Clin Pathol 53:573–580

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang G, Woo CW, Sung FL, Siow YL, O K (2002) Increased monocyte adhesion to aortic endothelium in rats with hyperhomocysteinemia: role of chemokine and adhesion molecules. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 22(11):1777–1783

    Google Scholar 

  • Welch G, Loscalzo J (1998) Homocysteine and atherothrombosis. N Engl J Med 338:1042–1051

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yehezkely-Schildkraut V, Kutai M, Hugeirat Y, Levin C, Shalev SA, Mazor G, Koren A (2005) Thrombophilia: a risk factor for cerebral palsy? Israel Med Assoc J 7(12):808–811

    Google Scholar 

  • Yoon BH, Romero R, Kim CJ, Koo JN, Choe G, Syn HC, Chi JG (1997) High expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 in periventricular leukomalacia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 177(2):406–411

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zaretsky MV, Alexander JM, Byrd W, Bawdon RE (2004) Transfer of inflammatory cytokines across the placenta. Obstet Gynecol 103(3):546–550

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zetterberg H, Regland B, Palmer M, Ricksten A, Palmqvist L, Rymo L, Arvanitis DA, Spandidos DA, Blennow K (2002) Increased frequency of combined methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase C677T and A1298C mutated alleles in spontaneously aborted embryos. Eur J Hum Genet 10(2):113–118

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Discipline of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia

    M. E. O’Callaghan, A. H. MacLennan & G. Dekker

  2. Department of Genetic Medicine, SA Pathology, Women’s and Children’s Hospital and Discipline of Paediatrics, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia

    E. A. Haan

Authors
  1. M. E. O’Callaghan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. A. H. MacLennan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. E. A. Haan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. G. Dekker
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Consortia

The South Australian Cerebral Palsy Research Group

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M. E. O’Callaghan.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

O’Callaghan, M.E., MacLennan, A.H., Haan, E.A. et al. The genomic basis of cerebral palsy: a HuGE systematic literature review. Hum Genet 126, 149–172 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-009-0638-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00439-009-0638-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation