Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Prospects for microbiological solutions to environmental pollution with plastics

  • Mini-Review
  • Published:
Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Synthetic polymers, commonly named plastics, are among the most widespread anthropogenic pollutants of marine, limnic and terrestrial ecosystems. Disruptive effects of plastics are known to threaten wildlife and exert effects on natural food webs, but signs for and knowledge on plastic biodegradation are limited. Microorganisms are the most promising candidates for an eventual bioremediation of environmental plastics. Laboratory studies have reported various effects of microorganisms on many types of polymers, usually by enzymatic hydrolysis or oxidation. However, most common plastics have proved to be highly recalcitrant even under conditions known to favour microbial degradation. Knowledge on environmental degradation is yet scarcer. With this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge on microbiological degradation of several of the most common plastic types. Furthermore, we illustrate the analytical challenges concerning the evaluation of plastic biodegradation as well as constraints likely standing against the evolution of effective biodegradation pathways.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Acmite (2014) Global polyamide market. Acmite Market Intelligence, Ratingen

    Google Scholar 

  • Agamuthu P, Faizura PN (2005) Biodegradability of degradable plastic waste. Waste Manag Res 23:95–100

  • Akutsu-Shigeno Y, Adachi Y, Yamada C, Toyoshima K, Nomura N, Uchiyama H, Nakajima-Kambe T (2006) Isolation of a bacterium that degrades urethane compounds and characterization of its urethane hydrolase. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 70:422–429

  • Akutsu Y, Nakajima-Kambe T, Nomura N, Nakahara T (1998) Purification and properties of a polyester polyurethane-degrading enzyme from Comamonas acidovorans TB-35. Appl Environ Microbiol 64:62–67

  • Albertsson AC (1980) The shape of the biodegradation curve for low and high-density polyethenes in prolonged series of experiments. Eur Polym J 16:623–630

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Albertsson AC, Andersson SO, Karlsson S (1987) The mechanism of biodegradation of polyethylene. Polym Degrad Stab 18:73–87

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ali MI, Ahmed S, Robson G, Javed I, Ali N, Atiq N, Hameed A (2014) Isolation and molecular characterization of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic degrading fungal isolates. J Basic Microbiol 54:18–27

  • Andrady AL, Neal MA (2009) Applications and societal benefits of plastics. Philos Trans R Soc B 364:1977–1984

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arantes V, Jellison J, Goodell B (2012) Peculiarities of brown-rot fungi and biochemical Fenton reaction with regard to their potential as a model for bioprocessing biomass. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 94:323–338

  • Arkatkar A, Arutchelvi J, Bhaduri S, Uppara PV, Doble M (2009) Degradation of unpretreated and thermally pretreated polypropylene by soil consortia. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 63:106–111

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arkatkar A, Juwarkar AA, Bhaduri S, Uppara PV, Doble M (2010) Growth of Pseudomonas and Bacillus biofilms on pretreated polypropylene surface. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 64:530–536

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Artham T, Sudhakar M, Venkatesan R, Nair CM, Murty KVGK, Doble M (2009) Biofouling and stability of synthetic polymers in sea water. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 63:884–890

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arthur C, Baker J, Bamford H (2009) Proc. International Research Workshop on the occurrence, effects and fate of microplastic marine debris, 9-11 September 2008. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS-OR&R30, US NOAA Marine Debris Division, Silver Spring

  • Bakir A, Rowland SJ, Thompson RC (2014) Enhanced desorption of persistent organic pollutants from microplastics under simulated physiological conditions. Environ Pollut 185:16–23

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnabé S, Beauchesne I, Cooper DG, Nicell JA (2008) Plasticizers and their degradation products in the process streams of a large urban physicochemical sewage treatment plant. Water Res 42:153–162

  • Barnes DKA, Galgani F, Thompson RC, Barlaz M (2009) Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments. Philos Trans R Soc B 364:1985–1998

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barth M, Oeser T, Wei R, Then J, Schmidt J, Zimmermann W (2015) Effect of hydrolysis products on the enzymatic degradation of polyethylene terephthalate nanoparticles by a polyester hydrolase from Thermobifida fusca. Biochem Eng J 93:222–228

  • Bejgarn S, MacLeod M, Bogdal C, Breitholtz M (2015) Toxicity of leachate from weathering plastics: an exploratory screening study with Nitocra spinipes. Chemosphere 132:114–119

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berdahl P, Akbari H, Levinson R, Miller WA (2008) Weathering of roofing materials—an overview. Constr Build Mater 22:423–433

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biffinger JC, Barlow DE, Pirlo RK, Babson DM, Fitzgerald LA, Zingarelli S, Nadeau LJ, Crookes-Goodson WJ, Russell JN (2014) A direct quantitative agar-plate based assay for analysis of Pseudomonas protegens Pf-5 degradation of polyurethane films. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 95:311–319

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bremer WP (1982) Photodegradable polyethylene. Polym-Plast Technol Eng 18:137–148

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cacciari I, Quatrini P, Zirletta G, Mincione E, Vinciguerra V, Lupattelli P, Sermanni GG (1993) Isotactic polypropylene biodegradation by a microbial community—physicochemical characterization of metabolites produced. Appl Environ Microbiol 59:3695–3700

  • Cai S, Cai T, Liu S, Yang Q, He J, Chen L, Hu J (2014) Biodegradation of N-methylpyrrolidone by Paracoccus sp. NMD-4 and its degradation pathway. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 93:70–77

  • Castaneda RA, Avlijas S, Simard MA, Ricciardi A (2014) Microplastic pollution in St. Lawrence River sediments. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 71:1767–1771

  • Chatterjee S, Karlovsky P (2010) Removal of the endocrine disrupter butyl benzyl phthalate from the environment. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 87:61–73

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen S, Su LQ, Billig S, Zimmermann W, Chen J, Wu J (2010) Biochemical characterization of the cutinases from Thermobifida fusca. J Mol Catal B Enzym 63:121–127

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cheremisinoff NP (1989) Handbook of polymer science and technology. M. Dekker, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Chua EM, Shimeta J, Nugegoda D, Morrison PD, Clarke BO (2014) Assimilation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers from microplastics by the marine amphipod, Allorchestes compressa. Environ Sci Technol 48:8127–8134

  • Cole M, Lindeque P, Halsband C, Galloway TS (2011) Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: a review. Mar Pollut Bull 62:2588–2597

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colton JB, Knapp FD, Burns BR (1974) Plastic particles in surface waters of the northwestern Atlantic. Science 185:491–497

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper DA, Corcoran PL (2010) Effects of mechanical and chemical processes on the degradation of plastic beach debris on the island of Kauai, Hawaii. Mar Pollut Bull 60:650–654

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corcoran PL, Biesinger MC, Grifi M (2009) Plastics and beaches: a degrading relationship. Mar Pollut Bull 58:80–84

  • Costa P, Ribeiro S, Botelho G, Machado AV, Lanceros Mendez S (2015) Effect of butadiene/styrene ratio, block structure and carbon nanotube content on the mechanical and electrical properties of thermoplastic elastomers after UV ageing. Polym Test 42:225–233

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cozar A, Echevarria F, Gonzalez-Gordillo JI, Irigoien X, Ubeda B, Hernandez-Leon S, Palma AT, Navarro S, Garcia-de-Lomas J, Ruiz A, Fernandez-de-Puelles ML, Duarte CM (2014) Plastic debris in the open ocean. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111:10239–10210244

  • Crabbe JR, Campbell JR, Thompson L, Walz SL, Schultz WW (1994) Biodegradation of a colloidal ester-based polyurethane by soil fungi. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 33:103–113

  • Cregut M, Bedas M, Durand MJ, Thouand G (2013) New insights into polyurethane biodegradation and realistic prospects for the development of a sustainable waste recycling process. Biotechnol Adv 31:1634–1647

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • da Luz JMR, Paes SA, Nunes MD, da Silva MDS, Kasuya MCM (2013) Degradation of oxo-biodegradable plastic by Pleurotus ostreatus. PLoS One 8:e69386. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0069386

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel JY, John R, Fachuang L, Kenneth EH (2008) Evidence for cleavage of lignin by a brown rot basidiomycete. Environ Microbiol 10:1844–1849

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Darby RT, Kaplan AM (1968) Fungal susceptibility of polyurethanes. Appl Microbiol 16:900–905

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • David C, Trojan M, Daro A, Demarteau W (1992) Photodegradation of polyethylene—comparison of various photoinitiators in natural weathering conditions. Polym Degrad Stab 37:233–245

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • de Moura Carrara SMC, Morita DM, Boscov MEG (2011) Biodegradation of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in a typical tropical soil. J Hazard Mater 197:40–48

  • Deguchi T, Kakezawa M, Nishida T (1997) Nylon biodegradation by lignin-degrading fungi. Appl Environ Microbiol 63:329–331

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deguchi T, Kitaoka Y, Kakezawa M, Nishida T (1998) Purification and characterization of a nylon-degrading enzyme. Appl Environ Microbiol 64:1366–1371

  • Derraik JGB (2002) The pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Mar Pollut Bull 44:842–852

  • Dick JS (2014) Rubber technology: compounding and testing for performance, 2nd edn. Hanser Publishers, Cincinnati

    Google Scholar 

  • Elder T (2013) Bond dissociation enthalpies of a dibenzodioxocin lignin model compound. Energy Fuel 27:4785–4790

  • Elder T (2014) Bond dissociation enthalpies of a pinoresinol lignin model compound. Energy Fuel 28:1175–1182

  • EPA (2014) Municipal solid waste generation, recycling, and disposal in the United States: facts and figures for 2012. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  • Eriksen M, Lebreton LC, Carson HS, Thiel M, Moore CJ, Borerro JC, Galgani F, Ryan PG, Reisser J (2014) Plastic pollution in the world’s oceans: more than 5 trillion plastic pieces weighing over 250,000 tons afloat at sea. PLoS One 9:e111913. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111913

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erythropel HC, Maric M, Nicell JA, Leask RL, Yargeau V (2014) Leaching of the plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) from plastic containers and the question of human exposure. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 98:9967–9981

  • EU (2014) Use of plastic bags: agreement on phasing down. Council of the European Union, Brussels

    Google Scholar 

  • Eubeler JP, Bernhard M, Zok S, Knepper TP (2009) Environmental biodegradation of synthetic polymers I. Test methodologies and procedures. TrAC Trend Anal Chem 28:1057–1072

  • European Bioplastics (2013) Bioplastics—facts and figures. European Bioplastics, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  • Filip Z (1978) Decompostion of polyurethane in a garbage landfill leakage water and by soil-microorganisms. Eur J Appl Microbiol 5:225–231

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fontanella S, Bonhomme S, Brusson JM, Pitteri S, Samuel G, Pichon G, Lacoste J, Fromageot D, Lemaire J, Delort AM (2013) Comparison of biodegradability of various polypropylene films containing pro-oxidant additives based on Mn, Mn/Fe or Co. Polym Degrad Stab 98:875–884

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Friedrich J, Zalar P, Mohorcic M, Klun U, Krzan A (2007) Ability of fungi to degrade synthetic polymer nylon-6. Chemosphere 67:2089–2095

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fujisawa M, Hirai H, Nishida T (2001) Degradation of polyethylene and nylon-66 by the laccase-mediator system. J Polym Environ 9:103–108

  • Gan Q, Allen SJ, Taylor G (2003) Kinetic dynamics in heterogeneous enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose: an overview, an experimental study and mathematical modelling. Process Biochem 38:1003–1018

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gautam R, Bassi AS, Yanful EK (2007) A review of biodegradation of synthetic plastic and foams. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 141:85–108

  • GESAMP (2015) Sources, fate and effects of microplastics in the marine environment: a global assessment. Rep. Stud. GESAMP no. 90. International Maritime Organization, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Giardina P, Faraco V, Pezzella C, Piscitelli A, Vanhulle S, Sannia G (2010) Laccases: a never-ending story. Cell Mol Life Sci 67:369–385

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilan I, Hadar Y, Sivan A (2004) Colonization, biofilm formation and biodegradation of polyethylene by a strain of Rhodococcus ruber. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 65:97–104

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldberg ED (1997) Plasticizing the seafloor: an overview. Environ Technol 18:195–201

  • Gregory MR, Ryan PG (1997) Pelagic plastics and other seaborne persistent synthetic debris: a review of southern hemisphere perspectives. In: Coe J, Rogers D (eds) Marine debris. Springer Series on Environmental Management. Springer, New York, pp 49–66

  • Guo Q, Zhang J, Wan R, Xie S (2014) Impacts of carbon sources on simazine biodegradation by Arthrobacter strain SD3-25 in liquid culture and soil microcosm. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 89:1–6

  • Gusse AC, Miller PD, Volk TJ (2006) White-rot fungi demonstrate first biodegradation of phenolic resin. Environ Sci Technol 40:4196–4199

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gutierrez A, Rencoret J, Cadena EM, Rico A, Barth D, del Rio JC, Martinez AT (2012) Demonstration of laccase-based removal of lignin from wood and non-wood plant feedstocks. Bioresour Technol 119:114–122

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hadad D, Geresh S, Sivan A (2005) Biodegradation of polyethylene by the thermophilic bacterium Brevibacillus borstelensis. J Appl Microbiol 98:1093–1100

  • Harms H, Schlosser D, Wick LY (2011) Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals. Nat Rev Microbiol 9:177–192

  • Harrison JP, Schratzberger M, Sapp M, Osborn AM (2014) Rapid bacterial colonization of low-density polyethylene microplastics in coastal sediment microcosms. BMC Microbiol 14:232

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hashimoto K, Hamano T, Okada M (1994) Degradation of several polyamides in soils. J Appl Polym Sci 54:1579–1583

  • Hofrichter M (2002) Review: lignin conversion by manganese peroxidase (MnP). Enzym Microb Technol 30:454–466

  • Hofrichter M, Ullrich R, Pecyna MJ, Liers C, Lundell T (2010) New and classic families of secreted fungal heme peroxidases. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 87:871–897

  • Horn SJ, Vaaje-Kolstad G, Westereng B, Eijsink VGH (2012) Novel enzymes for the degradation of cellulose. Biotechnol Biofuels 5:45. doi:10.1186/1754-6834-5-45

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howard GT (2002) Biodegradation of polyurethane: a review. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 49:245–252

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Huang MH, Shih YP, Liu SM (2002) Biodegradation of polyvinyl alcohol by Phanerochaete chrysosporium after pretreatment with Fenton’s reagent. J Environ Sci Health A 37:29–41

  • Iiyoshi Y, Tsutsumi Y, Nishida T (1998) Polyethylene degradation by lignin-degrading fungi and manganese peroxidase. J Wood Sci 44:222–229

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Imhof HK, Ivleva NP, Schmid J, Niessner R, Laforsch C (2013) Contamination of beach sediments of a subalpine lake with microplastic particles. Curr Biol 23:R867–R868

  • Imhof HK, Schmid J, Niessner R, Ivleva NP, Laforsch C (2012) A novel, highly efficient method for the separation and quantification of plastic particles in sediments of aquatic environments. Limnol Oceanogr Methods 10:524–537

  • Jambeck JR, Geyer R, Wilcox C, Siegler TR, Perryman M, Andrady A, Narayan R, Law KL (2015) Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean. Science 347:768–771

  • Jeon HJ, Kim MN (2013) Isolation of a thermophilic bacterium capable of low-molecular-weight polyethylene degradation. Biodegradation 24:89–98

  • Jeyakumar D, Chirsteen J, Doble M (2013) Synergistic effects of pretreatment and blending on fungi mediated biodegradation of polypropylenes. Bioresour Technol 148:78–85

  • Kann B, Offerhaus HL, Windbergs M, Otto C (2015) Raman microscopy for cellular investigations—from single cell imaging to drug carrier uptake visualization. Adv Drug Deliv Rev. doi:10.1016/j.addr.2015.02.006

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan DL, Hartenstein R, Sutter J (1979) Biodegradation of polystyrene, poly(methyl methacrylate), and phenol formaldehyde. Appl Environ Microbiol 38:551–553

  • Kastner J, Cooper DG, Marić M, Dodd P, Yargeau V (2012) Aqueous leaching of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate and “green” plasticizers from poly(vinyl chloride). Sci Total Environ 432:357–364

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kawai F, Oda M, Tamashiro T, Waku T, Tanaka N, Yamamoto M, Mizushima H, Miyakawa T, Tanokura M (2014) A novel Ca2+-activated, thermostabilized polyesterase capable of hydrolyzing polyethylene terephthalate from Saccharomonospora viridis AHK190. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 98:10053–10064

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kawasaki N, Nakayama A, Yamano N, Takeda S, Kawata Y, Yamamoto N, Aiba S (2005) Synthesis, thermal and mechanical properties and biodegradation of branched polyamide 4. Polymer 46:9987–9993

  • Kerem Z, Jensen KA, Hammel KE (1999) Biodegradative mechanism of the brown rot basidiomycete Gloeophyllum trabeum: evidence for an extracellular hydroquinone-driven fenton reaction. FEBS Lett 446:49–54

  • Kermanshahi pour A, Cooper DG, Mamer OA, Maric M, Nicell JA (2009) Mechanisms of biodegradation of dibenzoate plasticizers. Chemosphere 77:258–263

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khalil A, Domeizel M, Prudent P (2008) Monitoring of green waste composting process based on redox potential. Bioresour Technol 99:6037–6045

  • Kim S, Chmely SC, Nimos MR, Bomble YJ, Foust TD, Paton RS, Beckham GT (2011) Computational study of bond dissociation enthalpies for a large range of native and modified lignins. J Phys Chem Lett 2:2846–2852

  • Klun U, Friedrich J, Krzan A (2003) Polyamide-6 fibre degradation by a lignolytic fungus. Polym Degrad Stab 79:99–104

  • Knyazev VD (2007) Effects of chain length on the rates of C–C bond dissociation in linear alkanes and polyethylene. J Phys Chem A 111:3875–3883

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koutny M, Sancelme M, Dabin C, Pichon N, Delort A-M, Lemaire J (2006) Acquired biodegradability of polyethylenes containing pro-oxidant additives. Polym Degrad Stab 91:1495–1503

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer C, Kreisel G, Fahr K, Kassbohrer J, Schlosser D (2004) Degradation of 2-fluorophenol by the brown-rot fungus Gloeophyllum striatum: evidence for the involvement of extracellular Fenton chemistry. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 64:387–395

  • Krueger MC, Hofmann U, Moeder M, Schlosser D (2015) Potential of wood-rotting fungi to attack polystyrene sulfonate and its depolymerisation by Gloeophyllum trabeum via hydroquinone-driven Fenton chemistry. PLoS One 10:e0131773. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131773

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kümmerer K (2011) Emerging contaminants. In: Wilderer P (ed) Treatise on water science. Elsevier, Oxford, pp. 69–87

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lapworth DJ, Baran N, Stuart ME, Ward RS (2012) Emerging organic contaminants in groundwater: a review of sources, fate and occurrence. Environ Pollut 163:287–303

  • Larking DM, Crawford RJ, Christie GBY, Lonergan GT (1999) Enhanced degradation of polyvinyl alcohol by Pycnoporus cinnabarinus after pretreatment with Fenton’s reagent. Appl Environ Microbiol 65:1798–1800

  • Law KL, Moret-Ferguson SE, Goodwin DS, Zettler ER, Deforce E, Kukulka T, Proskurowski G (2014) Distribution of surface plastic debris in the eastern pacific ocean from an 11-year data set. Environ Sci Technol 48:4732–4734738

  • Loredo-Trevino A, Gutierrez-Sanchez G, Rodriguez-Herrera R, Aguilar CN (2012) Microbial enzymes involved in polyurethane biodegradation: a review. J Polym Environ 20:258–265

  • Lundell TK, Makela MR, Hilden K (2010) Lignin-modifying enzymes in filamentous basidiomycetes—ecological, functional and phylogenetic review. J Basic Microbiol 50:5–20

  • Luo Y-R (2007) Comprehensive handbook of chemical bond energies. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Luo ZH, Pang KL, Wu YR, Gu JD, Chow RK, Vrijmoed LL (2012) Degradation of phthalate esters by Fusarium sp. DMT-5-3 and Trichosporon sp. DMI-5-1 isolated from mangrove sediments. Prog Mol Subcell Biol 53:299–328

  • Marco-Urrea E, Pérez-Trujillo M, Caminal G, Vicent T (2009) Dechlorination of 1,2,3- and 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene by the white-rot fungus Trametes versicolor. J Hazard Mater 166:1141–1147

  • Marten E, Muller RJ, Deckwer WD (2003) Studies on the enzymatic hydrolysis of polyesters I. Low molecular mass model esters and aliphatic polyesters. Polym Degrad Stab 80:485–501

  • Marten E, Muller RJ, Deckwer WD (2005) Studies on the enzymatic hydrolysis of polyesters. II. Aliphatic-aromatic copolyesters. Polym Degrad Stab 88:371–381

  • Martinez AT, Speranza M, Ruiz-Duenas FJ, Ferreira P, Camarero S, Guillen F, Martinez MJ, Gutierrez A, del Rio JC (2005) Biodegradation of lignocellulosics: microbial chemical, and enzymatic aspects of the fungal attack of lignin. Int Microbiol 8:195–204

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCormick A, Hoellein TJ, Mason SA, Schluep J, Kelly JJ (2014) Microplastic is an abundant and distinct microbial habitat in an urban river. Environ Sci Technol 48:11863–11871

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKeen LW (2013) 2 - introduction to the weathering of plastics. In: McKeen LW (ed) The effect of UV light and weather on plastics and elastomers (3rd edition). William Andrew Publishing, Boston, pp 17–41

  • Mikulasova M, Kosikova B, Alexy P, Kacik F, Urgelova E (2001) Effect of blending lignin biopolymer on the biodegradability of polyolefin plastics. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 17:601–607

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Milstein O, Gersonde R, Huttermann A, Chen MJ, Meister JJ (1992) Fungal biodegradation of lignopolystyrene graft-copolymers. Appl Environ Microbiol 58:3225–3232

  • Mor R, Sivan A (2008) Biofilm formation and partial biodegradation of polystyrene by the actinomycete Rhodococcus ruber. Biodegradation 19:851–858

  • Muller RJ, Kleeberg I, Deckwer WD (2001) Biodegradation of polyesters containing aromatic constituents. J Biotechnol 86:87–95

  • Muller RJ, Schrader H, Profe J, Dresler K, Deckwer WD (2005) Enzymatic degradation of poly(ethylene terephthalate): rapid hydrolyse using a hydrolase from T-fusca. Macromol Rapid Commun 26:1400–1405

  • Murray KE, Thomas SM, Bodour AA (2010) Prioritizing research for trace pollutants and emerging contaminants in the freshwater environment. Environ Pollut 158:3462–3471

  • Nakajima-Kambe T, Onuma F, Kimpara N, Nakahara T (1995) Isolation and characterization of a bacterium which utilizes polyester polyurethane as a sole carbon and nitrogen-source. FEMS Microbiol Lett 129:39–42

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakamiya K, Sakasita G, Ooi T, Kinoshita S (1997) Enzymatic degradation of polystyrene by hydroquinone peroxidase of Azotobacter beijerinckii HM121. J Ferment Bioeng 84:480–482

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Negoro S (2000) Biodegradation of nylon oligomers. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 54:461–466

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Negoro S, Shibata N, Tanaka Y, Yasuhira K, Shibata H, Hashimoto H, Lee YH, Oshima S, Santa R, Oshima S, Mochiji K, Goto Y, Ikegami T, Nagai K, Kato D, Takeo M, Higuchi Y (2012) Three-dimensional structure of nylon hydrolase and mechanism of nylon-6 hydrolysis. J Biol Chem 287:5079–5090

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ng KL, Obbard JP (2006) Prevalence of microplastics in Singapore’s coastal marine environment. Mar Pollut Bull 52:761–767

  • O’Brine T, Thompson RC (2010) Degradation of plastic carrier bags in the marine environment. Mar Pollut Bull 60:2279–2283

  • Oberbeckmann S, Loeder MGJ, Gerdts G, Osborn AM (2014) Spatial and seasonal variation in diversity and structure of microbial biofilms on marine plastics in Northern European waters. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 90:478–492

  • OECD (2013) Policies for bioplastics in the context of a bioeconomy. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Policy Papers, no. 10. OECD Publishing, Paris

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ogawa G, Ishida M, Urano N (2009) Isolation and identification of dibutyl phthalate-degrading bacteria from hydrospheres in Tokyo. J Gen Appl Microbiol 55:261–265

  • Ohki T, Mizuno N, Shibata N, Takeo M, Negoro S, Higuchi Y (2005) Crystallization and X-ray diffraction analysis of 6-aminohexanoate-dimer hydrolase from Arthrobacter sp KI72. Acta Crystallogr Sect F: Struct Biol Cryst Commun 61:928–930

  • Ojeda TFM, Dalmolin E, Forte MMC, Jacques RJS, Bento FM, Camargo FAO (2009) Abiotic and biotic degradation of oxo-biodegradable polyethylenes. Polym Degrad Stab 94:965–970

  • Otake Y, Kobayashi T, Asabe H, Murakami N, Ono K (1995) Biodegradation of low-density polyethylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl-chloride, and urea-formaldehyde resin buried under soil for over 32 years. J Appl Polym Sci 56:1789–1796

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pastorelli G, Cucci C, Garcia O, Piantanida G, Elnaggar A, Cassar M, Strlič M (2014) Environmentally induced colour change during natural degradation of selected polymers. Polym Degrad Stab 107:198–209

  • Peng YH, Shih YH, Lai YC, Liu YZ, Liu YT, Lin NC (2014) Degradation of polyurethane by bacterium isolated from soil and assessment of polyurethanolytic activity of a Pseudomonas putida strain. Environ Sci Pollut Res 21:9529–9537

  • PlasticsEurope (2015a) Business data and charts 2013/2014. PlasticsEurope, Brussels

    Google Scholar 

  • PlasticsEurope (2015b) Plastics - the facts 2014/2015. PlasticsEurope, Brussels

    Google Scholar 

  • Pradeep S, Faseela P, Josh MK, Balachandran S, Devi RS, Benjamin S (2013) Fungal biodegradation of phthalate plasticizer in situ. Biodegradation 24:257–267

  • Pradeep S, Sarath Josh MK, Binod P, Sudha Devi R, Balachandran S, Anderson RC, Benjamin S (2015) Achromobacter denitrificans strain SP1 efficiently remediates di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 112:114–121

  • Prahl FG, Ertel JR, Goni MA, Sparrow MA, Eversmeyer B (1994) Terrestrial organic carbon contributions to sediments on the Washington margin. Geochim Cosmochim Acta 58:3035–3048

  • Purdy RE, Kolattuk PE (1973) Depolymerization of a hydroxy fatty-acid biopolymer, cutin, by an extracellular enzyme from Fusarium solani f. pisi—isolation and some properties of enzyme. Arch Biochem Biophys 159:61–69

  • Pushpadass HA, Weber RW, Dumais JJ, Hanna MA (2010) Biodegradation characteristics of starch-polystyrene loose-fill foams in a composting medium. Bioresour Technol 101:7258–7264

  • Restrepo-Florez JM, Bassi A, Thompson MR (2014) Microbial degradation and deterioration of polyethylene—a review. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 88:83–90

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rochman CM, Kurobe T, Flores I, Teh SJ (2014) Early warning signs of endocrine disruption in adult fish from the ingestion of polyethylene with and without sorbed chemical pollutants from the marine environment. Sci Total Environ 493:656–661

  • Ronkvist AM, Xie WC, Lu WH, Gross RA (2009) Cutinase-catalyzed hydrolysis of poly(ethylene terephthalate). Macromolecules 42:5128–5138

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roth C, Wei R, Oeser T, Then J, Follner C, Zimmermann W, Strater N (2014) Structural and functional studies on a thermostable polyethylene terephthalate degrading hydrolase from Thermobifida fusca. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 98:7815–7823

  • Roy PK, Hakkarainen M, Varrna IK, Albertsson AC (2011) Degradable polyethylene: fantasy or reality. Environ Sci Technol 45:4217–4227

  • Ruiz-Duenas FJ, Martinez AT (2009) Microbial degradation of lignin: how a bulky recalcitrant polymer is efficiently recycled in nature and how we can take advantage of this. Microb Biotechnol 2:164–177

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell JR, Huang J, Anand P, Kucera K, Sandoval AG, Dantzler KW, Hickman D, Jee J, Kimovec FM, Koppstein D, Marks DH, Mittermiller PA, Nunez SJ, Santiago M, Townes MA, Vishnevetsky M, Williams NE, Vargas MPN, Boulanger LA, Bascom-Slack C, Strobel SA (2011) Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by endophytic fungi. Appl Environ Microbiol 77:6076–6084

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan PG, Moloney CL (1993) Marine litter keeps increasing. Nature 361:23–23

  • Santana VT, Goncalves SPC, Agnelli JAM, Martins-Franchetti SM (2012) Biodegradation of a polylactic acid/polyvinyl chloride blend in soil. J Appl Polym Sci 125:536–540

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Santo M, Weitsman R, Sivan A (2013) The role of the copper-binding enzyme—laccase—in the biodegradation of polyethylene by the actinomycete Rhodococcus ruber. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 84:204–210

  • Schlosser D, Fahr K, Karl W, Wetzstein HG (2000) Hydroxylated metabolites of 2,4-dichlorophenol imply a Fenton-type reaction in Gloeophyllum striatum. Appl Environ Microbiol 66:2479–2483

  • Setala O, Fleming-Lehtinen V, Lehtiniemi M (2014) Ingestion and transfer of microplastics in the planktonic food web. Environ Pollut 185:77–83

  • Shah AA, Hasan F, Hameed A, Ahmed S (2008) Biological degradation of plastics: a comprehensive review. Biotechnol Adv 26:246–265

  • Sielicki M, Focht DD, Martin JP (1978) Microbial degradation of [C-14]polystyrene and 1,3-diphenylbutane. Can J Microbiol 24:798–803

  • Silva CP, Otero M, Esteves V (2012) Processes for the elimination of estrogenic steroid hormones from water: a review. Environ Pollut 165:38–58

  • Sivan A (2011) New perspectives in plastic biodegradation. Curr Opin Biotechnol 22:422–426

  • Solé M, Schlosser D (2014) Xenobiotics from human impacts. In: Krauss G-J, Niess DH (eds) Ecological biochemistry: environmental and interspecies interactions. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, pp. 259–275

    Google Scholar 

  • Song Y, Andrady AL (1991) Fouling of floating plastic debris under Biscayne Bay exposure conditions. Mar Pollut Bull 22:608––6613

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stahl JD, Cameron MD, Haselbach J, Aust SD (2000) Biodegradation of superabsorbent polymers in soil. Environ Sci Pollut Res 7:83––888

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stloukal P, Verney V, Commereuc S, Rychly J, Matisova-Rychlá L, Pis V, Koutny M (2012) Assessment of the interrelation between photooxidation and biodegradation of selected polyesters after artificial weathering. Chemosphere 88:1214–1219

  • Storz H, Vorlop KD (2013) Bio-based plastics: status, challenges and trends. Landbauforschung-Ger 63:321–332

  • Suzuki MR, Hunt CG, Houtman CJ, Dalebroux ZD, Hammel KE (2006) Fungal hydroquinones contribute to brown rot of wood. Environ Microbiol 8:2214–2223

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tabone MD, Cregg JJ, Beckman EJ, Landis AE (2010) Sustainability metrics: life cycle assessment and green design in polymers. Environ Sci Technol 44:8264–8269

  • Tachibana K, Urano Y, Numata K (2013) Biodegradability of nylon 4 film in a marine environment. Polym Degrad Stab 98:1847–1851

  • Thellen C, Coyne M, Froio D, Auerbach M, Wirsen C, Ratto JA (2008) A processing, characterization and marine biodegradation study of melt-extruded polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) films. J Polym Environ 16:1–11

  • Thompson R, Moore C, Andrady A, Gregory M, Takada H, Weisberg S (2005) New directions in plastic debris. Science 310:1117–1117

  • Thompson RC, Olsen Y, Mitchell RP, Davis A, Rowland SJ, John AWG, McGonigle D, Russell AE (2004) Lost at sea: where is all the plastic? Science 304:838–838

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tokiwa Y, Calabia BP, Ugwu CU, Aiba S (2009) Biodegradability of plastics. Int J Mol Sci 10:3722–3742

  • Tosin M, Weber M, Siotto M, Lott C, Degli-Innocenti F (2012) Laboratory test methods to determine the degradation of plastics in marine environmental conditions. Front Microbiol 3:225. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2012.00225

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tribedi P, Sil AK (2013) Low-density polyethylene degradation by Pseudomonas sp AKS2 biofilm. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:4146–4153

  • Tsuji H, Suzuyoshi K (2002) Environmental degradation of biodegradable polyesters 1. Poly(epsilon-caprolactone), poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate], and poly(l-lactide) films in controlled static seawater. Polym Degrad Stab 75:347–355

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Valko L, Tvarovska I, Kellö V (1972) Irregular structures in poly(vinyl chloride). I. Saturated structures. Chem Pap 26:3–17

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Cauwenberghe L, Vanreusel A, Mees J, Janssen CR (2013) Microplastic pollution in deep-sea sediments. Environ Pollut 182:495–499

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vert M, Doi Y, Hellwich KH, Hess M, Hodge P, Kubisa P, Rinaudo M, Schue F (2012) Terminology for biorelated polymers and applications (IUPAC recommendations 2012). Pure Appl Chem 84:377–408

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volke-Sepulveda T, Saucedo-Castaneda G, Gutierrez-Rojas M, Manzur A, Favela-Torres E (2002) Thermally treated low density polyethylene biodegradation by Penicillium pinophilum and Aspergillus niger. J Appl Polym Sci 83:305–314

  • Volova TG, Boyandin AN, Vasil’ev AD, Karpov VA, Kozhevnikov IV, Prudnikova SV, Rudnev VP, Xuan BB, Dung VVT, Gitel’zon II (2011) Biodegradation of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) in the South China Sea and identification of PHA-degrading bacteria. Microbiology 80:252–260

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Zhu L, Liu A, Ma T, Wang Q, Xie H, Wang J, Jiang T, Zhao R (2011) Isolation and characterization of an Arthrobacter sp. strain HB-5 that transforms atrazine. Environ Geochem Health 33:259–266

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang Y, Fan Y, Gu J-D (2004) Dimethyl phthalate ester degradation by two planktonic and immobilized bacterial consortia. Int Biodeterior Biodegrad 53:93–101

  • Webb JS, Nixon M, Eastwood IM, Greenhalgh M, Robson GD, Handley PS (2000) Fungal colonization and biodeterioration of plasticized polyvinyl chloride. Appl Environ Microbiol 66:3194–3200

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodall LC, Sanchez-Vidal A, Canals M, Paterson GLJ, Coppock R, Sleight V, Calafat A, Rogers AD, Narayanaswamy BE, Thompson RC (2014) The deep sea is a major sink for microplastic debris. R Soc Open Sci 1:140317. doi:10.1098/rsos.140317

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamano N, Nakayama A, Kawasaki N, Yamamoto N, Aiba S (2008) Mechanism and characterization of polyamide 4 degradation by Pseudomonas sp. J Polym Environ 16:141–146

  • Yang J, Yang Y, Wu WM, Zhao J, Jiang L (2014) Evidence of polyethylene biodegradation by bacterial strains from the guts of plastic-eating waxworms. Environ Sci Technol 48:13776–13784

  • Yasuhira K, Uedo Y, Takeo M, Kato D, Negoro S (2007) Genetic organization of nylon-oligomer-degrading enzymes from alkalophilic bacterium, Agromyces sp KY5R. J Biosci Bioeng 104:521–524

  • Yates MR, Barlow CY (2013) Life cycle assessments of biodegradable, commercial biopolymers—a critical review. Resour Conserv Recycl 78:54–66

  • Yelle DJ, Ralph J, Lu FC, Hammel KE (2008) Evidence for cleavage of lignin by a brown rot basidiomycete. Environ Microbiol 10:1844–1849

  • Yelle DJ, Wei DS, Ralph J, Hammel KE (2011) Multidimensional NMR analysis reveals truncated lignin structures in wood decayed by the brown rot basidiomycete Postia placenta. Environ Microbiol 13:1091–1100

  • Yoon GY, Jeon HJ, Kom MN (2012) Biodegradation of polyethylene by a soil bacterium and alkB cloned recombinant cell. J Biorem Biodegrad 3:145. doi:10.4172/2155-6199.1000145

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Younker JM, Beste A, Buchanan AC (2012) Computational study of bond dissociation enthalpies for lignin model compounds: beta-5 arylcoumaran. Chem Phys Lett 545:100–106

  • Zettler ER, Mincer TJ, Amaral-Zettler LA (2013) Life in the “plastisphere”: microbial communities on plastic marine debris. Environ Sci Technol 47:7137–7146

  • Zolfaghari M, Drogui P, Seyhi B, Brar SK, Buelna G, Dubé R (2014) Occurrence, fate and effects of Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in wastewater treatment plants: a review. Environ Pollut 194:281–293

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank PlasticsEurope for kindly providing the ‘Business Data and Charts 2013/2014’. Funding from the EU project BIOCLEAN, EC Grant Agreement no. 312100, is gratefully acknowledged. This work was further supported by the Helmholtz Association and contributes to the integrated project ‘Controlling Chemicals’ Fate’ in the Chemicals in the Environment (CITE) research programme conducted at the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Compliance with ethical standards

This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research-UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany

    Martin C. Krueger, Hauke Harms & Dietmar Schlosser

Authors
  1. Martin C. Krueger
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Hauke Harms
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Dietmar Schlosser
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Dietmar Schlosser.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Krueger, M.C., Harms, H. & Schlosser, D. Prospects for microbiological solutions to environmental pollution with plastics. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 99, 8857–8874 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-015-6879-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-015-6879-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation