Skip to main content
Log in

Individual differences in children's writing: A function of working memory or reading or both processes?

  • Published:
Reading and Writing Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a general or specific working memory (WM) system is related to writing and whether individual differences in reading and/or processing efficiency underlie the correlations between WM and writing. Two studies correlated WM with writing (Test of Written Language-TOWL) and reading measures. In Study 1, WM was correlated significantly with a number of writing measures, particularly to those measures related to text generation. Working-memory also contributed unique variance to writing, beyond what is predicted by reading comprehension. Study 2 compared the correlations of verbal and visual-spatial WM measures with the TOWL under initial and enhanced memory processing (dynamic assessment) conditions. The coefficients were statistically comparable between initial and enhanced processing conditions, suggesting that individual differences in processing efficiency do not account for the correlations between WM and writing. Overall, the results indicated that (a) WM measures contribute unique variance to writing, especially text generation, and (b) working memory performance improves under gain conditions, but this enhanced processing efficiency did not appear to mediate the links between WM and writing. Taken together, the two studies support a general capacity explanation for the relationship between working memory and text generation.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working-memory. London, UK: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baddeley, A. D., Logie, R., Nimmo-Smith, I. & Brereton, N. (1985). Components of fluent reading, Journal of Memory and Language 24: 119–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beal, C. R. (1990). The development of text evaluation and revision skills, Child Development 61: 247–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bereiter, C., Burtis, P. & Scardamalia, M. (1988). Cognitive operations in constructing main points in written composition, Journal of Memory and Language 27: 261–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berninger, V. & Swanson, H. L. (1994). Modifying Hayes and Flower's Model of skilled writing to explain beginning and developing writing. In E., Butterfield (ed.), Children's writing: Toward a process theory of the development of skilled writing (pp. 57–81). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brock, J. K. (1982). Toward a cognitive psychology of syntax: Information processing contributions to sentence formulation, Psychological Review 89: 1–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campione, J. & Brown, A. (1987). Linking dynamic assessment with school achievement. In C., Lidz (ed.) Dynamic assessment (pp. 82–115). New York: Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cantor, J., Engle, R. W. & Hamilton, G. (1991). Short-term memory, working memory, and verbal abilities: How do they relate?, Intelligence 15: 229–246.

    Google Scholar 

  • Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development: Birth to adulthood. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clay, M. (1971). Sentence repetition: Elicited imitation of a controlled set of syntactic structures by four language groups, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 36: 85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1977). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daneman, M. (1987). Reading and working-memory. In J. R., Beech & A. M., Colley (eds.), Cognitive approaches to reading (pp. 57–86). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daneman, M. & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual differences in working memory and reading, Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 19: 450–466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daneman, M. & Carpenter, P. A. (1983). Individual differences in integrating information between and within sentences, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition 9: 561–584.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daneman, M. & Green, I. (1986). Individual differences in comprehending and producing words in context, Journal of Memory and Language 25: 1–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daneman, M. & Tardiff, T. (1987). Working-memory and reading skill re-examined. In M., Coltheart (ed.) Attention and performance, XII: The psychology of reading (pp. 491–508). Hove, UK: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, P., LeFevre, J. & Twilley, L. C. (1988). Word knowledge and working memory as predictors of reading skill, Journal of Educational Psychology 80: 465–472.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, L. M. & Dunn, L. M. (1981). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Embretson, S. E. (1987). Toward a development of a psychometric approach. In C., Lidz (ed.), Dynamic assessment (pp. 141–172). New York: Guildford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Engle, R., Cantor, J. & Carullo, J. (1993). Individual differences in working-memory and comprehension: A test of four hypotheses, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition 18: 972–992.

    Google Scholar 

  • Engle, R. W., Nations, J. & Cantor, J. (1990). Is working-memory capacity just another name for word knowledge?, Journal of Educational Psychology 82: 799–804.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flower, L. S. & Hayes, J. R. (1980). The dynamics of composing: Making plans and juggling constraints. In L. W., Gregg & E. R., Steinberg (eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 31–50) Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gathercole, S. E. & Baddeley, A. D. (1993). Working memory and language. East Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammill, D. & Larsen, S. (1988). Test of written language. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, J. & Flower, L. (1980). Identifying the organization of the writing process. In L. W., Gregg & E. R., Steinberg (eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 3–30). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hidi, S. E. & Hildyard, A. (1983). The comparison of oral and written productions in two discourse types, Discourse Processes 6: 91–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jastak, S. & Wilkinson, G. (1984). Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised. Wilmington, DE: Jastak Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Just, M. & Carpenter, P. A. (1992). A capacity theory of comprehension: Individual differences in working-memory, Psychological Review 99: 122–149.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellogg, R. T. (1987). Effects of topic knowledge on the allocation of processing time and cognitive effort to writing processes, Memory & Cognition 15: 256–266.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marascuilo, L. & Levin, J. R. (1983). Multivariate statistics in the social sciences. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Masson, M. E. J. & Miller, J. A. (1983). Working-memory and individual differences in comprehension and memory of text, Journal of Educational Psychology 75: 214–219.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D. (1984). Writing as a linguistic problem. Educational Psychologist 19: 226–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D. (1986). Domain knowledge and linguistic knowledge in the development of writing ability, Journal of Memory and Language 25: 431–444.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D. (1987). Children's discourse skill: Forms and modality requirements of schooled writing, Discourse Processes 10: 267–286.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCutchen, D. & Perfetti, C. A. (1982). Coherence and connectedness in the development of discourse production, Text 2: 113–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. & McCutchen, D. (1987). Schooled language competence: Linguistic abilities in reading and writing. In S., Rosenberg (ed.), Advances in applied psycholinguistics, Vol 2 (pp. 105–141). New York: Cambridge Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perfetti, C. A. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scardamalia, M. (1981). How children code with the cognitive demands of writing. In C. H., Frederiksen & J. F., Dominic (eds.), Writing: The nature, development, and teaching of written communication, Vol. 2. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scardamalia, M. & Bereiter, C. (1986). Research on written composition. In M. C., Wittrock (ed.) Handbook of research on teaching, 3rd ed. (pp. 778–803). New York: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scardamalia, M., Bereiter, C. & Goelman, H. (1982). The role of production factors in writing ability. In M., Nystrang (ed.), What writers know. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shanahan, T. (1984). Nature of the reading-writing relation: An exploratory multivariate analysis, Journal of Educational Psychology 76: 466–477.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, H. L. (1992). The generality and modifiability of working memory, Journal of Educational Psychology 84: 473–488.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, H. L. (1993). Individual differences in working memory: A model testing and subgroup analysis, Intelligence 17: 285–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, H. L. (1995). S-Cognitive Processing Test. Austin, TX: PRO_ED.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, H. L. (1996). Age-related and individual differences in children's working memory, Memory & Cognition 24: 70–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, H. L. & Berninger, V. (1995). Working memory as a source of individual differences in children's writing. In E., Butterfield (ed.), Children's writing: Toward a process theory of skilled writing (pp. 31–35). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, H. L. & Berninger, V. (1996). Individual differences in children's working memory and writing skill, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology (in press).

  • Swanson, H. L., Cochran, K. & Ewers, C. (1989). Working-memory and reading disabilities, Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 17: 745–746.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, M. L. & Engle, R. W. (1989). Is working-memory capacity task dependent?, Journal of Memory and Language 28: 27–154.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Swanson, H.L., Berninger, V.W. Individual differences in children's writing: A function of working memory or reading or both processes?. Read Writ 8, 357–383 (1996). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00395114

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00395114

Key words

Navigation