Summary
Two species of Banksia (family Proteaceae) studied in Australia were shown to be pollinated by small, non-flying mammals rather than by birds as previously thought, and to possess several adaptations appropriate for mammal-rather than bird-pollination: odor, troughs that channel excess nectar to the ground for attraction, open inflorescence structure for nectar accessibility, hooked wiry styles for effective pollen transfer, crepuscular and nocturnal nectar and pollen presentation, and copious nectar. This apparently is the first documentation with quantified data of pollination by non-flying mammals, although many other probable examples exist.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Baker, H.G.: The adaptations of flowering plants to nocturnal and crepuscular pollinators. Quart. Rev. Biol. 36, 64–73 (1961)
Carolin, R.: Pollination of the Proteaceae. Aust. Nat. Hist. 13, 371–374 (1961)
Carpenter, F.L.: Plant-pollinator interactions in Hawaii: Pollination energetics of Metrosideras collina (Myrtaceae). Ecology 57, 1125–1144 (1977)
Carpenter, F.L., Recher, H.F.: Pollination, reproduction, and fire. Am. Nat. (in press)
Faegri, K., van der Pijl, L.: The principles of pollination ecology. New York: Pergamon Press 1971
Feinsinger, P.: Organization of a tropical guild of nectarivorous birds. Ecol. Monogr. 46, 257–291 (1976)
Grant, K.: A hypothesis concerning the prevalence of red coloration in Californian hummingbird flowers. Am. Nat. 100, 85–98 (1966)
Hainsworth, F.R., Wolf, L.L.: Energetics of nectar extraction in a small, high altitude, tropical hummingbird, Selasphorus flammula. J. Comp. Physiol. 80, 377–387 (1972)
Heinrich, B., Raven, P.H.: Energetics and pollination ecology. Science 176, 597–602 (1972)
Holliday, I., Watton, G.: A field guide to Banksias. Adelaide, Australia: Rigby 1975
Keast, A.: Seasonal movements in the Australian honeyeaters (Meliphagidae) and their ecological significance. J. Roy. Austr. Ornithol. Un. 67, 159–209 (1968)
Lyne, G.: Marsupials and monotremes of Australia. Sydney, Australia: Angus and Robertson 1967
Morcombe, M.K.: Australia's Western Wildflowers. Perth, Australia: Landfall Press 1968
Paton, D.C., Ford, H.A.: Pollination by birds of native plants in South Australia. Emu 77, 73–85 (1977)
Recher, H.F., Abbott, I.J.: The possible ecological significance of hawking by honeyeaters and its relation to nectar feeding. Emu 70(2) (1970)
Ride, W.D.L.: A guide to the native mammals of Australia. London: Oxford Univ. Press 1970
Rourke, J., Wiens, D.: Convergent floral evolution in South African and Australian Proteaceae and its possible bearing on pollination by non-flying mammals. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 64, 1–17 (1977)
Schmidt-Nielsen, K.: Locomotion: Energy cost of swimming, flying, and running. Science 177, 222–228 (1972)
Scott-Elliot, G.F.: Ornithophilus flowers in South Africa. Ann. Bot. 4, 265–280 (1889–1890)
Simpson, G.G.: Historical zoogeography of Australian mammals. Evolution XV, 431–446 (1961)
Stiles, F.G.: Food supply and the annual cycle of the Anna hummingbird. Univ. Calif. Publ. Zool. 97, 1–109 (1973)
Troughton, E.: Furred animals of Australia. Sydney, Australia: Angus and Robertson 1965
Tucker, V.A.: Energetic cost of locomotion in animals. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 34, 841–846 (1970)
Vose, H.M.: Feeding habits of the Western Australian honey possum, Tarsipes spenserae. J. Mammal. 54, 245–247 (1973)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lynn Carpenter, F. Hooks for mammal pollination?. Oecologia 35, 123–132 (1978). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00344725
Received:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00344725