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Human Smuggling and Human Trafficking

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International Conflict and Security Law

Abstract

Human smuggling and human trafficking are part of mixed migration flows, which are defined as complex population movements concerning both regular (i.e. documented) and irregular (i.e. undocumented) migrants. Even though migration rates have been steady since the 1990s, the forced displacement of people is on the rise worldwide. There are often similarities between the trafficking and smuggling of people, but the profiles of the persons affected and, consequently, the legal responses differ. It is important therefore to distinguish, in law and in practice, between human smuggling and trafficking, even though both are considered a form of organised crime. Yet, despite their different legal status, they are often conflated, including by law enforcement agencies, courts and support service providers, which leads to unsatisfactory protection and services being offered to trafficked and smuggled persons who find themselves in situations of vulnerability. This chapter provides an overview of the legal framework on migrant smuggling, with a particular focus on maritime migrant smuggling, followed by human trafficking, which is further considered in the context of modern slavery legislation. The final section examines human trafficking and human smuggling in conflict and the corresponding jurisprudential developments in international criminal law.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 2018.

  2. 2.

    Krogstad et al. 2017.

  3. 3.

    International Organization for Migration (IOM) 2018b.

  4. 4.

    IOM 2011, p. 63.

  5. 5.

    See UNODC 2018b.

  6. 6.

    FATF 2018, p. 13.

  7. 7.

    UNODC 2018a, p. 5.

  8. 8.

    See, for instance, FATF 2018.

  9. 9.

    Cited in Laczko 2005, p. 10.

  10. 10.

    See, for instance, Reports of the Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, UN Doc. A/HRC/32/41, 3 May 2016, para 16 and UN Doc. A/HRC/29/38, 31 March 2015, para 11.

  11. 11.

    IOM 2014.

  12. 12.

    Van Liempt 2016.

  13. 13.

    The Eastern Bloc (often referred to also as the Soviet Bloc or Communist Bloc), consisted of countries in Eastern Europe, East Asia and Southeast Asia that were under the influence of the Soviet Union during the Cold War (1947–1991).

  14. 14.

    Van Liempt 2016, p. 3.

  15. 15.

    Horwood et al. 2018, pp. 122–123.

  16. 16.

    Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of a Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, established by the UNGA Resolution 53/111 (1998), https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CTOC/background/adhoc-committee.html. Accessed 28 August 2019.

  17. 17.

    See the UNGA Resolution 53/111 (20 January 1999).

  18. 18.

    Adopted by the UNGA Resolution 55/25 (15 November 2000).

  19. 19.

    Article 3(a) and (b) respectively.

  20. 20.

    See https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32002F0946. Accessed 27 August 2019.

  21. 21.

    Ibid., at (2) and (5) respectively.

  22. 22.

    For more information, see https://www.baliprocess.net/.

  23. 23.

    Declaration of the Seventh Ministerial Conference of the Bali Process on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons and Related Transnational Crime, 7 August 2018.

  24. 24.

    For more information, see https://asean.org/.

  25. 25.

    UNODC 2018d, p. 1.

  26. 26.

    UNTOC, Article 34(2); Smuggling Protocol, Article 4; see also UNODC 2004, Part 3, Chap. I, para 20, p. 334.

  27. 27.

    Article 2.

  28. 28.

    Article 3(a).

  29. 29.

    See UNGA, ‘Interpretative notes for the official records (travaux préparatoires) of the negotiation of the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime and the Protocols thereto’, UN Doc. A/55/383/Add.1, 2000, para 88.

  30. 30.

    The meanings of “inhumane” or “degrading” are not defined in the Smuggling Protocol, but there already exists extensive international and domestic jurisprudence in relation to these terms in the context of human rights law and as defined in Article 7 of the International Convent on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) (1966) 999 UNTS 171. See also the UNODC 2010, p. 43.

  31. 31.

    Article 5.

  32. 32.

    Article 19; see also the UN Convention on the Status of Refugees (1951) 189 UNTS 150, Article 31.

  33. 33.

    See UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (1982) 1833 UNTS 397, Article 98(1), but it needs to be noted that the application of this provision has been challenged given recent increase in vessels at sea in need of rescue. See also Papastavridis 2013, p. 23.

  34. 34.

    Article 11(3).

  35. 35.

    See UNODC 2010, pp. 59–60.

  36. 36.

    UNODC 2018a.

  37. 37.

    UNCLOS, Article 5.

  38. 38.

    Meaning the country where the ship is registered and, under UNCLOS Article 27, that country has responsibility, including criminal jurisdiction, over the ship even when the ship is outside the territorial waters of the flag state.

  39. 39.

    See also The Case of the SS Lotus (France v. Turkey) (Judgment), Permanent Court of International Justice, 7 September 1927.

  40. 40.

    Gallagher and David 2014, p. 273.

  41. 41.

    UNHCR 2000, para 10.

  42. 42.

    It is beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss in detail the legal implications for each of the maritime zones, but for an in-depth overview see IOM 2018a.

  43. 43.

    These would include: when the vessel is engaged in piracy (UNCLOS, Article 105); slave trading (UNCLOS, Articles 99 and 110(1)(b)); and unauthorised broadcasting (UNCLOS, Articles 109(4) and 110).

  44. 44.

    UNGA 2003.

  45. 45.

    UN Security Council (UNSC) Resolution S/RES/2312 (6 October 2016).

  46. 46.

    See, for instance, Tejera 2011.

  47. 47.

    J. Hooper, ‘Abandoned ship Ezadeen with 450 migrants on board being towed to Italy’, The Guardian (International edition), 02 January 2015. www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/02/abandoned-cargo-vessel-migrants-towed-italy-traffickers. Accessed 28 August 2019.

  48. 48.

    Churchill and Lowe 1999, p. 54.

  49. 49.

    See also McDorman 2000.

  50. 50.

    For a legal evaluation of the concept of ‘effective control’ in the context of Australia’s obligations towards asylum seekers and refugees, see Szablewska and Ly 2017.

  51. 51.

    However, some human rights treaties do not include jurisdiction clauses thus, arguably, these have only territorial scope, i.e. the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) (1966) 993 UNTS 3 and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) (1979) 1249 UNTS 13. See also Khaliq 2015.

  52. 52.

    UN Human Rights Committee (HRC) 2004, para 10, emphasis added.

  53. 53.

    See Article 8(5).

  54. 54.

    Article 19.

  55. 55.

    See also Klug and Howe 2010.

  56. 56.

    Medvedyev and Others v. France (Judgment), Application no. 3394/03, para 81, 29 March 2010.

  57. 57.

    For more information, see http://osb.homeaffairs.gov.au.

  58. 58.

    See also IOM 2016.

  59. 59.

    But it must be noted that Australia has denied that the principle of non-refoulement has extra-territorial application or that it applies outside the territorial seas, see CPCF v. Minister for Immigration and Border Protection (Judgment), Case No. S169/2014, High Court of Australia, 28 January 2015.

  60. 60.

    See, for instance, the Convention on the Status of Refugees, above n 32, Article 33(1).

  61. 61.

    See ‘Royal Australian Navy personnel open up about trauma of seeing asylum seekers die at sea’, ABC News, 02 December 2014. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-12-02/navy-personnel-open-up-about-border-protection/5933260. Accessed 28 August 2019; see also Schloendhardt and Craig 2015.

  62. 62.

    See Report of the Special Rapporteur of the Human Rights Council on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, ‘Unlawful death of refugees and migrants’, UN Doc. A/72/335, 2017, in particular para 33.

  63. 63.

    UNCLOS, Article 98(2).

  64. 64.

    For instance, in a 2011 incident, 63 irregular migrants died as a result of a “catalogue of failures” of Italy, Malta, NATO and two commercial fishing vessels in responding to distress calls, see Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) 2012.

  65. 65.

    1979 (as amended in 1998) 1403 UNTS, Article 3.1.1.

  66. 66.

    Under the SAR Convention ‘search and rescue region’ (SRR) regime, see para 2.1.4.

  67. 67.

    For more on the legal issues surrounding the incident, see Szablewska and Karim 2013.

  68. 68.

    Maritime Safety Committee, ‘Review of Safety Measures and Procedures for the Treatment of Persons Rescued at Sea’, A.920(22), 2002. See also the non-legally binding guidance introduced by the IMO, ‘Guidelines on the treatment of persons rescued at sea’, MSC.167(78), 2004, Annex 34.

  69. 69.

    For an overview of Australian refugee and asylum seekers policy, see Szablewska 2014.

  70. 70.

    For example, HRC, ‘Consideration of Reports by State Parties under Article 40 of the Covenant, Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: Australia’, UN Doc. CCPR/C/AUS/CO/5, 2009; Committee Against Torture, ‘Concluding Observations on the Combined Fourth and Fifth Periodic Reports of Australia’, UN Doc. CAT/C/AUS/CO/4-5, 2014; UNHCR, ‘Monitoring Visit to the Republic of Nauru, 7–9 October 2013’, 2013.

  71. 71.

    See, for instance, UNODC 2018a.

  72. 72.

    The latter term is used in the Council of Europe Convention on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings (the Warsaw Convention) (2005) CETS No.197.

  73. 73.

    International Labour Organization (ILO) and Walk Free Foundation 2017.

  74. 74.

    UNODC 2018b, p. 11.

  75. 75.

    On human trafficking in Australasia, see Szablewska 2018; in the European context, see Stoyanova 2017.

  76. 76.

    See, for instance, Szablewska and Kubacki 2018.

  77. 77.

    UNODC 2018b.

  78. 78.

    European Institute for Gender Equality, ‘Gender-Specific Measures in Anti-Trafficking Actions’, 2018. https://eige.europa.eu/rdc/eige-publications/gender-specific-measures-anti-trafficking-actions-report. Accessed 28 August 2019.

  79. 79.

    On the more nuanced approach to gender and ‘gendering’ of human trafficking, see Vijeyarasa 2015.

  80. 80.

    UNODC 2018b.

  81. 81.

    Ibid.

  82. 82.

    For more information see https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/?menu=1300.

  83. 83.

    For more information see https://www.iom.int/global-compact-migration.

  84. 84.

    For more information see http://www.ungift.org/.

  85. 85.

    See also the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) 217 A (III), Article 4; ICCPR, Article 8; CEDAW, Article 6; Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (1989) 1577 UNTS 3, Article 35; Convention on the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (1990) A/RES/45/158, Article 11; see also the Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of Prostitution of Others (1949) A/RES/317.

  86. 86.

    Article 9.

  87. 87.

    See, for instance, UNHCR, ‘Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking,’ UN Doc. E/2002/68/Add. 1, 2003.

  88. 88.

    Trafficking Protocol, Article 3(a).

  89. 89.

    Ibid., Article 3(c).

  90. 90.

    See also UNODC 2014.

  91. 91.

    UNODC 2018b, p. 41.

  92. 92.

    UNODC 2018b.

  93. 93.

    UNODC 2013, p. 84.

  94. 94.

    Further on this point in the context of sex work, see Bradley and Szablewska 2016.

  95. 95.

    UN Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, Working Group on Trafficking in Persons, Report on the Meeting of the Working Group on Trafficking in Persons held in Vienna on 14 and 15 April 2009, UN Doc. CTOC/COP/WG.4/2009/2, 2009, para 12.

  96. 96.

    See the Warsaw Convention, above n 72, Article 26; the EU Directive 2011/36 (5 April 2011), Article 8 which prohibits not only the conviction but also brining charges against the victim of trafficking; Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Addendum to the Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings, PC.DEC/1107/Corr.1, Sect. IV, 2013, para 2.6.

  97. 97.

    See, for instance, ICAT 2020.

  98. 98.

    On the history of slavery see, for example, Bales 2004.

  99. 99.

    60 LNTS 253.

  100. 100.

    The Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, 226 UNTS 3.

  101. 101.

    On orphanage trafficking or ‘paper orphaning’, see Van Doore 2016.

  102. 102.

    ILO and the Walk Free Foundation 2017, p. 10.

  103. 103.

    UNHCR 2011.

  104. 104.

    At the time of writing, the NSW Act is not yet in force.

  105. 105.

    That is requiring companies to account for how they address their adverse human rights impacts; see also the UNGPs: Principles 15 and 17.

  106. 106.

    See http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2015/30/contents/enacted

  107. 107.

    ILO Convention (No. 182) concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (1999) C 182.

  108. 108.

    Sec. 4.

  109. 109.

    For an analysis of the Australia’s Modern Slavery Act, see Nolan and Frishling 2019.

  110. 110.

    See the European Convention on Human Rights (1950) ETS 5, Article 4; ICCPR, Article 8; American Convention on Human Rights (1969) OAS Treaty Series No 36, Article 6; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (1981) 1520 UNTS 363, Article 5.

  111. 111.

    Report of the Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery, Recommendation 4, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1998/14, 1998.

  112. 112.

    ICCPR, Article 8.

  113. 113.

    ICCPR, Article 20; CRC, Article 19.

  114. 114.

    ICCPR, Articles 12 and 13.

  115. 115.

    ICESCR, Articles 6 and 7.

  116. 116.

    ICESCR, Article 12(1).

  117. 117.

    See, for example, UN Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate, ‘Identifying and exploring the nexus between human trafficking, terrorism, and terrorism financing’, 2019. https://www.un.org/sc/ctc/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/HT-terrorism-nexus-CTED-report.pdf. Accessed 28 August 2019; also Report of the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of slavery, including its causes and consequences, ‘Current and emerging forms of slavery’, UN Doc. A/HRC/42/44, 2019, para 19.

  118. 118.

    UN Security Council Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate, above n 117, p. 12.

  119. 119.

    CARITAS, ‘Trafficking in Human Beings in Conflict and Post-Conflict Situation’, 2015, p. 6. http://antitrafficking.am/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/2research_action_trafficking_in_human_beings_and_conflicts_en_10_juin_2015_pdf.pdf. Accessed 28 August 2019.

  120. 120.

    In the context of the Syrian conflict see International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) 2015.

  121. 121.

    See Additional Protocols I (1125 UNTS 3) and II (1125 UNTS 609) to the 1949 Geneva Conventions (1967), Articles 72(2) and 4(3)(c) respectively; Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Rome Statute) (1998) 2187 UNTS 90, Article 8(2)(b)(xxvi) and (e)(vii); CRC, Article 38(2); see also the Option Protocol to the CRC (2000) A/RES/54/263.

  122. 122.

    See, for instance, UNODC 2018b.

  123. 123.

    S/RES/2331 (20 December 2016), p. 1.

  124. 124.

    UNSC, Report of the Secretary-General on Trafficking in Persons in Armed Conflict Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 2331, UN Doc. S/2017/939, 2017.

  125. 125.

    2017, UN Doc. S/RES/2388.

  126. 126.

    UNODC 2018b; see also UNODC 2018c.

  127. 127.

    UN Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, ‘Statement to the Security Council Open Debate on Maintenance of international peace and security: trafficking in persons in conflict situations’, 2017. https://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22431&LangID=E. Accessed 28 August 2019.

  128. 128.

    See, for example, Coulter 2009.

  129. 129.

    UN Human Rights Council 2016.

  130. 130.

    See, for instance, United States Department of State, ‘Trafficking in Persons Report – Nigeria’, 2018.

  131. 131.

    UNSC, Final Report on the Panel of Experts on Libya Established Pursuant to Resolution 1973, UN Doc. S/2017/466, 2011.

  132. 132.

    IMT Charter (Nuremberg), Article 6; IMT Charter (Tokyo), Article 5(c).

  133. 133.

    Prosecutor v. Kunarac, Kovac and Vukovic, Case Nos. IT-96-23-T and IT-96-23/1-T, Appeals Chamber, 12 June 2002, para 515.

  134. 134.

    Prosecutor v. Charles Ghankay Taylor (Judgement Summary), SCSL-0 3-1-T, 26 April 2012.

  135. 135.

    Article 7(1)(c).

  136. 136.

    Article 7(2)(c), emphasis added.

  137. 137.

    Article 7(1)(g).

  138. 138.

    Article 8(2)(b)(xxii).

  139. 139.

    Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, ICC-01/04-01/07, 27 March 2017.

  140. 140.

    Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, ICC-01/04-02/06, Trial Chamber VI, 8 July 2019.

  141. 141.

    Rome Statute, above n 121, Article 7.

  142. 142.

    Piotrowicz 2012, p. 185.

  143. 143.

    Office of the Prosecutor, ‘Policy paper on case selection and prioritisation’, 2016. https://www.icc-cpi.int/itemsDocuments/20160915_OTP-Policy_Case-Selection_Eng.pdf. Accessed 27 August 2019.

  144. 144.

    ICC, ‘Statement of the ICC Prosecutor to the UNSC on the situation in Libya’, 2017. https://www.icc-cpi.int/Pages/item.aspx?name=170509-otp-stat-lib. Accessed 27 August 2019.

  145. 145.

    Fatou Bensouda, ‘Remarks at the 17th session of the Assembly of States Parties’, 2018. https://www.icc-cpi.int/itemsDocuments/20181205-otp-statement.pdf. Accessed 27 August 2019.

  146. 146.

    Note also the findings of the China Tribunal, a people’s tribunal, on 17 June 2019, that forced organ harvesting committed against certain minorities in China constitutes a crime against humanity, see https://chinatribunal.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/ChinaTribunal_-SummaryJudgment_17June2019.pdf. Accessed 28 August 2019.

  147. 147.

    See, for instance, the study by Azose and Raftery 2019.

  148. 148.

    Grewcock 2010, p. 15.

  149. 149.

    See, for instance, UNGA, New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, UN doc. A/RES/71/1, 2016.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Open University Law School, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom

    Natalia Szablewska

  2. Royal University of Law and Economics, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

    Natalia Szablewska

  3. Humanitarian and Development Research Initiative, Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia

    Natalia Szablewska

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  1. Natalia Szablewska
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Correspondence to Natalia Szablewska .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. School of Law, KIMEP University, Almaty, Kazakhstan

    Sergey Sayapin

  2. School of Law, KIMEP University, Almaty, Kazakhstan

    Rustam Atadjanov

  3. National Law School of India, Pune, India

    Umesh Kadam

  4. Law and Social Sciences, University of Derby, Derby, UK

    Gerhard Kemp

  5. School of Law, KIMEP University, Almaty, Kazakhstan

    Nicolás Zambrana-Tévar

  6. Bristol Law School, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK

    Noëlle Quénivet

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Szablewska, N. (2022). Human Smuggling and Human Trafficking. In: Sayapin, S., Atadjanov, R., Kadam, U., Kemp, G., Zambrana-Tévar, N., Quénivet, N. (eds) International Conflict and Security Law. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-515-7_53

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-515-7_53

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