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The Development of Environmental Impact Assessments for Deep-Sea Mining

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Environmental Issues of Deep-Sea Mining

Abstract

The chapter provides an account of general Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) processes and applications, and their role in the developing exploitation of deep-sea mineral resources. It includes aspects such as definitions, the position of EIA as part of a larger process, the structure and content of an EIS and the role of risk assessment in the EIA and considers some of the key elements specific to deep-sea mining that need to be addressed as potential mining progresses from exploration to future exploitation. Elements identified by the ISA, and examples from national assessments, are also reviewed briefly to determine what will be required in future.

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Acknowledgements

I am grateful to many colleagues working in the area of deep-sea science and management for wide-ranging discussions in recent years on the needs of environmental assessment for deep-sea mining.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand

    Malcolm R. Clark

Authors
  1. Malcolm R. Clark
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Correspondence to Malcolm R. Clark .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, India

    Rahul Sharma

Appendix 1: Summary Table of Recommended Scientific Methodologies, Including the Aspects to Be Covered During the Survey Programme, Parameters to Be Measured and Appropriate Methods to Consider Given the Local Environmental Conditions (From Swaddling et al. 2016)

Appendix 1: Summary Table of Recommended Scientific Methodologies, Including the Aspects to Be Covered During the Survey Programme, Parameters to Be Measured and Appropriate Methods to Consider Given the Local Environmental Conditions (From Swaddling et al. 2016)

 

Aspect

Reason

Main parameters

Sampling

Geology

Topography

Seabed characteristics, classification of habitats for assessment, survey stratification, selection of test and control areas

Bathymetry, morphometry, seafloor type

Shipboard/towed acoustic systems, optical sensors, dredges, box corer, drilling equipment

Backscatter

Seabed characteristics, classification of habitats for assessment, survey stratification, selection of test and control areas

Acoustic reflectivity

Shipboard/towed acoustic systems; side-scan sonar, hyperspectral imaging

Sub-seafloor

Petrology, geochemistry and mineralogy for resource characterization

Penetration layers, rock properties, mineral and chemical composition

Seismic, drilling, rock sampling (dredges, coring)

Sediment characteristics

Sediment properties

Sediment plume dynamics, classification of habitats

Substrate type, sediment and pore water measurements: water content, grain size, specific gravity, porosity, depth of toxic layer, carbon content, chemical composition (trace and heavy metals)

Sediment cores (box corer or mulitcorer)

Bioturbation rates

Natural mixing of sediments

Bioturbation depth, faunal zonation, Pb210 activity

Sediment cores (box corer or mulitcorer)

Sedimentation rates

Distribution and concentration of natural suspension, settlement rates

Particle flux, suspended particle concentrations, settlement rates

Moorings and sediment traps

Pelagic community

Deepwater pelagic (plankton and nekton)

Impacts of sediment plume and discharges on midwater communities, vertical migrators, and near-bottom hyper-benthos

Species composition, distribution, abundance. Biological characteristics (sensitivity, recoverability parameters)

Opening/closing nets for plankton (remotely operated vehicle (ROV) also possible). Pelagic trawls/commercial records for fish

Surface fauna

Effects of surface discharges, presence of vessels and equipment

Species composition, distribution, abundance. Biological characteristics (sensitivity, recoverability parameters)

Opening/closing nets, surface plankton nets, remote-sensed data

Marine mammals/sea birds

Effects of surface discharges, presence of vessels and equipment

Species composition, distribution, abundance. Biological characteristics (sensitivity, recoverability parameters)

Marine mammal observer protocols

Seafloor community

Megafauna

Impacts on benthic communities

Species composition, distribution, abundance. Biological characteristics (sensitivity, recoverability parameters)

Photographic surveys from ROV/towed camera; direct sampling from dredge/sled/trawl/ROV

Macrofauna

Impacts on benthic communities

Species composition, distribution, abundance. Biological characteristics (sensitivity, recoverability parameters)

Muliticorer or box corer, and epibenthic sled; photographic surveys from ROV/towed camera; direct sampling from dredge/sled/trawl/ROV

Meiofauna

Impacts on benthic communities

Biodiversity, distribution, abundance

Multicorer or box corer; direct sampling from dredge/sled/trawl/ROV

Microfauna

Impacts on benthic communities

Biodiversity, distribution, abundance

Sediment cores (box corer or mulitcorer)

Specific resource fauna

Endemic species or communities, sensitive habitats (including biogenic habitats)

Species composition, distribution, abundance

ROV/towed camera, epibenthic sled; direct sampling by ROV, box corer for nodule environments

Scavenger/demersal fish

Impacts on benthic communities

Species composition, distribution, abundance

Baited lander, fish trawls, traps, ROV observations

Ecotoxicity

Impacts of heavy metals/contaminants on benthic communities, accumulation through food chain potential

Tissue samples from representative and abundant fauna

Various direct sampling methods (as above)

Physical oceanography

Currents

Dispersal of impacts, biological connectivity

Current speed, direction, depth variation, tidal dynamics, sea surface temperature (SST), sea surface height (SSH), ocean colour

Conductivity temperature depth profiler (CTD), current meters, acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP), remote-sensed data, profiling moorings

Hydrodynamic modelling

Dispersal of impacts, sediment plume dynamics, biological connectivity

Oceanographic parameters (temperature, salinity, current flow and direction), turbulence, turbidity, bathymetry

Various models applicable, e.g. Regional Ocean Modelling System (ROMS), Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model (HYCOM), CORMIX (discharges)

Chemical oceanography

Water quality

Effects of discharges, sediment plume

Chemical composition (including heavy metals and toxic contaminants), turbidity, suspended sediment, dissolved oxygen, pH

Water samples (from CTD), surface remote-sensed data, core samples, nephelometer, transmissometer, optical backscatter sensors

Visual characteristics

Effects of discharges, sediment plume

Optical backscatter, light attenuation, black disc distance

Transmissometer, optical backscatter sensors, remote sensing

Bottom water chemistry

Effects of sediment/rock disturbance, release of chemicals, effluent discharge

Elutriation for chemical and toxicity testing, pH, trace and heavy metal concentrations, dissolved oxygen

Water samplers (CTD-Niskin bottles), core samples

Water column chemistry

Effects on chemical characteristics due to sediment plume and discharges

Nutrients (P, N, Si, C), dissolved oxygen, trace and heavy metal concentrations

Water samplers (CTD-Niskin bottles)

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Clark, M.R. (2019). The Development of Environmental Impact Assessments for Deep-Sea Mining. In: Sharma, R. (eds) Environmental Issues of Deep-Sea Mining. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12696-4_16

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